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A system of wadis drain mountain slopes into the desert and into the Gulf of Aden. In December , an earthquake centered in the Indian Ocean caused a tsunami that affected many of the nearby countries. There were only two confirmed deaths in Yemen, but damage to coastal fishing villages and businesses was severe. Winds blowing northwest in summer and southwest in winter bring little rain but cause severe sandstorms.
The climate of the highlands is generally considered the best in Arabia. Summers are temperate and winters are cool, with some frost. Vegetation is sparse along the coast, but in the highlands and wadis, it is plentiful. Acacia, date palm, and many fruit trees are common. Many varieties of grapes are cultivated. Custard apple, euphorbia, and spurge grow in abundance. Alpine roses, balsam, basil, wild elder, and Judas tree are among the flowers and herbs.
Wild mammals include the baboon, gazelle, leopard, and mountain hare. Scorpions and millipedes are everywhere, but snakes are less common. Many varieties of birds are found, including the bustard, hawk, vulture, raven, parrot, hornbill, honeysucker, and weaver finch. More than 27, varieties of insects and over specimens of flowering plants have been collected in Yemen. There are at least 66 species of mammals and 93 species of birds found throughout the country. Yemen's main environmental problems have long been scarcity of water, soil erosion, and desertification.
Water pollution is a problem due to contaminants from the oil industry, untreated sewage, and salinization. Natural forests in mountainous areas have been destroyed by agricultural clearing and livestock overgrazing. The National Environmental Council, established in , disseminates information on conservation. In response to the nation's environmental needs, the government of Yemen has created laws governing the use of the country's water supply.
Law Number 42 protects water and marine life.
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According to a report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources IUCN , threatened species included 6 types of mammals, 14 species of birds, 2 types of reptiles, 1 species of amphibian, 11 species of fish, 2 types of mollusks, and species of plants. Endangered species include the northern bald ibis, the South Arabian leopard, slender-billed curlew, and two species of turtle green sea and hawksbill. Queen of Sheba 's gazelle and the Saudi Gazelle have become extinct in the wild.
The population of Yemen in was estimated by the United Nations UN at 20,,, which placed it at number 51 in population among the nations of the world. There were males for every females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for — 10 was expected to be 3. Yemen's fertility rate, at 6. The projected population for the year was 39,, The overall population density was 39 per sq km per sq mi , with most of the population concentrated in the Tihama foothills and central highlands of Yemen.
Most of southern Yemen is very sparsely populated. Other large cities and their estimated populations include Ta'izz 2,, , Al 'udaydah Hodiedah 2,, , and 'Aden , , the chief port. There were 1,, citizens of Yemen working abroad in Most were working in Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states. When Yemen took Iraq 's side in the war that followed its annexation of Kuwait , Saudi Arabia effectively expelled an estimated , — 1,, Yemeni workers by revoking their work privileges. Following independence and the establishment of a leftist regime in the PDRY, more than , people fled to the north, including about 80, Yemenis from the YAR, and virtually all minority groups left the country.
Subsequent political upheavals resulted in further emigration. In more than 60, Yemenis returned from the Horn of Africa, chiefly because of turmoil in Somalia. In and , Yemen experienced a significant influx of Somali asylum seekers, who fled their country for economic reasons.
As of , there were 66, refugees in Yemen, most from Somalia, and 2, asylum seekers and 39 returned refugees. The net migration rate in was estimated as zero migrants per 1, population, a significant decline from 9. The government viewed the immigration level as too high, but the emigration level as satisfactory. Since independence, the population has been almost entirely Arab. However, there are Afro-Arab concentrations in western coastal locations, South Asians in southern regions, and small European communities in major metropolitan areas.
Many ethnologists contend that the purest "Arab" stock is to be found in Yemen. Classified as Joktanic Semites, the Yemenis claim descent from Himyar, great-grandson of Joktan, who, according to the book of Genesis , was descended from Shem, the son of Noah. Yemenis were prominent in the early armies of Islam and thus helped to Arabize much of the Middle East.
The Tihama has been subjected to occupation and infiltration by many conquerors, and its people show significant admixtures of other racial types, including Negroid peoples. This group faces a greater level of poverty and social discrimination that some other minorities. The history of the Yemenite Jews predates by centuries the Islamic Hijra ad How they came to settle in the region has not been determined.
Country statistics
Arabic, the national language, is spoken in a variety of dialects. In vocabulary and other features there is a considerable difference between the classical language used for writing and formal speaking and the spoken dialect used for ordinary discourse. Traces of the ancient South Arabian languages spoken prior to the coming of Muhammad appear in the dialects of the more remote districts of southern Yemen.
Mahri, a rare and relatively unstudied language of unknown origins, is spoken in the east. English is widely understood in the former PDRY. The Republic of Yemen is officially a Muslim country. Almost all of the inhabitants are Sunnis of the Shaf 'i school, one of the four major schools of Islamic law. They reside chiefly in the coastal plains and the southwestern part of the country. Most of those remaining are Shias of the Zaydi sect, who live in the highlands. This sect, originating in the 9th century, takes its name from Zayd bin 'Ali d. In addition, there is a small minority of Ismailis, members of another Shia sect.
Nearly all of the country's once sizable Jewish population has emigrated. There are no legal restrictions on the few hundred who remain, although there are traditional restrictions on places of residence and choice of employment. There are also small Christian and Hindu communities.
In remote areas there is still evidence of shamanism, animism, and other indigenous forms of religion. The constitution provides for freedom of religion, but the government does enforce some restrictions. Conversion of Muslims to other religions is punishable by death; non-Muslims are prohibited from proselytizing and holding public office. Through the s, Yemen's transportation system consisted of a few primitive mud tracks connecting the larger towns.
By , Yemen had about 69, km 43, mi of roadway, of which only 9, km 6, mi were paved. In , passenger cars numbered ,, while there were , commercial vehicles. There are no railways or waterways in Yemen. Improvements to the main port of Al 'udaydah have expanded berthing, storage, and handling facilities and increase cargo capacity to 1,, tons annually. Other ports are Al-Mukha, Aden, and Salif, which have sheltered harbors and deepwater berths capable of taking 10,ton ships. In the 'Aden Container Terminal opened with further expansion plans underway.
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Progress in air transportation has been rapid in recent years. In there were an estimated 44 airports, 16 of which had paved runways as of There are smaller international airports at Al 'udaydah, Ta'izz, and 'Aden. The airline carried about , passengers in Classical geographers divided Arabia into three regions: The last, the southwestern corner, included the territory now occupied by Yemen. The region was the site of a series of rich kingdoms that dominated world trade. The wealthy kingdom of Sheba or Saba , with its capital at Ma'rib, is the best known of the South Arabian kingdoms.
The prosperity of this kingdom 10th to 2d centuries bc was based on the spice and incense trade. Competition from new trade routes undermined Sabaean prosperity and caused the kingdom to decline. From the 2d century bc to the 6th century ad, the Himyarite dynasty, of ethnic stock similar to that of the Sabaeans, ruled in Arabia Felix, and paganism gradually gave way to Christianity and Judaism.
The Himyarite hegemony was ended in by invading Christian Ethiopians, whose rule lasted until , when they were driven out by Persian invaders. Islam was accepted in the next century, and Yemen became the battleground of Muslim religious factions. The coastline Tihama was held by the Sunnis of the Shafi'i School, while the highlands were controlled by the Zaydis, a Shia sect. In the 9th century, a Zaydi ruler, Yahya al-Hadi ila'l Haqq, founded a line of imams that survived until the second half of the 20th century. Nevertheless, Yemen's medieval history is a tangled chronicle of contesting local imams.
The Fatimids of Egypt helped the Isma'ilis maintain dominance in the 11th century. Saladin Salah ad-Din annexed Yemen in The Rasulid dynasty Kurdish and Turkish in origin ruled Yemen, with Zabid as its capital, from about to the 15th century. In , the Mamluks of Egypt annexed Yemen; but in the following year, the Mamluk governor surrendered to the Ottoman Turks, and Turkish armies subsequently overran the country. They were challenged by the Zaydi imam Qasim the Great r.
From then until the 19th century, the Ottomans retained control only of the coastal area, while the highlands generally were ruled by the Zaydi imams. Early in the 19th century, Yemen was overrun by Wahhabis, but in , Ibrahim Pasha , the son of Muhammad 'Ali of Egypt, drove them out of Yemen and reestablished Zaydi control. Egyptian troops occupied the main ports of Yemen until , when they were withdrawn. The Zaydi imams recognized Ottoman suzerainty and paid a large annual subsidy to the Ottoman sultan.
The northern mountains remained under the control of Zaydi imams from the Hamid ad-Din family. The Ottomans kept a large force in Yemen during World War I , but under the armistice terms evacuated it in and Yemen became independent. In the British had occupied 'Aden as a coaling station on the route to India; the importance of the territory was substantially increased with the opening of the Suez Canal in In the United Kingdom occupied Al 'udaydah, which came into Idrisi hands when the British withdrew in The Zaydis, now led by Imam Yahya ibn Muhammad Hamid ad-Din, who had become imam in , waged an armed struggle against the Idrisis that ended when Imam Yahya seized Al 'udaydah in The imam also sought to move into the states of the Western Aden Protectorate in an attempt to reestablish his suzerainty in these territories formerly held by the Yemenis.
However, incursions by the Imams against the UK protectorate in 'Aden continued until The inhabitants of 'Aden, who were more politically and economically advanced than those of the protectorates, opposed adherence to the federation. Nevertheless, 'Aden in was merged into the federation, which then became known as the Federation of South Arabia.
The dispute over the future form and direction of this new political entity, as well as over which other states would join it, resulted in several years of factional violence, as various political parties, labor organizations, and other groups struggled for political ascendancy. Finally, in , the National Liberation Front NLF emerged as the strongest political group, and the United Kingdom agreed to negotiate with it concerning future independence. A further political alignment occurred in , when Salim Rubaya 'Ali became head of state and 'Abd al-Fattah Isma'il was named head of the party, in an uneasy rivalry.
Isma'il resigned his position in , ostensibly for reasons of health, and went into exile. In December however, the pro forma federal connection with Egypt was severed, and in September the government of Imam Muhammad al-Badr, only a few days old, was overthrown by revolutionary forces led by Brigadier later Marshal 'Abdallah as-Sallal.
He proclaimed himself president and commander-in-chief of the army and declared the establishment of the Yemen Arab Republic. Badr escaped to the northern regions of the YAR, where he organized a counterrevolutionary force. A civil war between the royalists defenders of the imamate and the republican government broke out, and appeals by both sides for support brought about the active intervention of other Arab states. Saudi Arabia supported the royalist cause, and the UAR came to the assistance of the republic, dispatching up to 70, troops to the YAR; fighting was particularly bitter during the winter of — Eventually the conflict subsided, as the Saudis curtailed their aid to the royalists and the Egyptians to the republicans.
Sallal was deposed in November and replaced by a Republican Council. Talks between republican leaders and Saudi Arabia in March at Jiddah concluded with an agreement that ended the civil war and left the republicans in control. In June ' Abd ar-Rahman al-Iryani who had been president since resigned, thrusting the country into a state of political confusion. By the end of the year Lieutenant Colonel Ibrahim Muhammad al-Hamdi had emerged as president, heading a government with powers of centralized control that were progressively strengthened.
Hamdi was assassinated by unknown assailants in October His successor, Colonel Ahmad ibn Hussein al-Ghashmi, who formed a civilian government and established the Constituent People's Assembly, met a similar fate in June , in a bomb blast in which PDRY involvement was suspected. Lieutenant Colonel 'Ali 'Abdallah Saleh thereupon became president.
In , he inaugurated the General People's Congress as an instrument for popular political mobilization. Since independence, the PDRY was embroiled in conflicts with all three of its neighbors. The war ended with a truce, mediated by the Arab League , and with an agreement in principle to seek unification of the two Yemens. A number of officials were killed, including Isma'il, and Muhammad was forced into exile, along with thousands of his followers.
A civil war ensued during the following two weeks, in which about 4, died and the supporters of Muhammad were defeated. Haydar Abn Bakr al-'Attas, the prime minister , took over as acting president; Dr. President al'Attas was officially elected in November In late a constitution for the two Yemens was drafted.
Saleh was able to defeat the NDF militarily in Movement toward unification was maintained in repeated declarations and meetings through , but no real progress was achieved. The January civil war in the PDRY set back relations between the two countries, particularly since 50, refugees fled the YAR, but both governments subsequently reaffirmed their commitment to unity.
The unified Republic of Yemen was proclaimed the following day. In the May election, seats were won by the northern General People's Congress, 62 by Islaah an Islamist and tribalist party , 56 by the southern Yemeni Socialist Party, 47 by independents, and 15 by five other parties. A month transition period was set for unifying the different political and economic systems. The army, police, and civil service were not integrated as planned, however. Meanwhile, the economy was hard hit by the consequences of Yemen's support for Iraq after the Kuwait invasion.
A three-party coalition was formed but foundered in late when Vice President Ali al-Beidh of the Yemen Socialist Party boycotted meetings. Although the quarrel appeared to be patched up with an agreement in February , fighting broke out in May of that year. In a few months, thousands of casualties had been suffered; tribes, clans, and militias were engaged in seeking their own selfish goals and the city of 'Aden was under siege.
Some observers attributed the civil conflict to the recent discovery of massive oil reserves in the south and to Saudi Arabia's interest in weakening Yemen by promoting the breakup of the union. The future looked bleak, despite efforts of the UN and some Arab states to promote peace.
Although bloody, the civil war was short-lived, with the north having subdued the rebellious south by July. In parliamentary elections were scheduled for May and it was expected that Saleh's GPC would retain its sizable majority. The international community expressed skepticism as to the fairness of the elections but, in the context of the Persian Gulf , they were expected to be reasonably fair. Notably, the YSP, representing the defeated south, announced that it would boycott the elections in protest of the GPC's collusion with Islaah, a tribal and Islamist party, to rig the elections.
Saleh maintained the presidency and on 14 May Faraj Said Bin Ghanem became the new prime minister. The YSP boycotted the election. Charges of fraud were made by the opposition with allegations of underage voting, multiple balloting, and unauthorized submission of ballots by absentee voters. Yemen's history of kidnappings, over Westerners the first six years of the s, continued through In the past the kidnappings were economically motivated, i.
Later, others appeared ideological — Muslims demanding the release of prisoners held by another Muslim group. Kidnappings damaged Yemen's economy by their impact on its tourist industry. Falling world oil prices also hit Yemen hard since oil accounts the vast majority of Yemen's exports.
Yemen attempted to increase economic productivity with a campaign against qat khat chewing. In August the government led by President Saleh, himself a qat user, launched a campaign to reduce qat usage by swearing off qat and encouraging others to follow his example. Anti-qat campaigns have been politically treacherous as former prime minister Mohsin al-Aini was ousted in after attempting to stamp out qat-chewing. On 12 October , two suicide bombers detonated a small boat containing explosives alongside the USS Cole as it was refueling in Aden harbor.
Seventeen US sailors were killed and 39 others were wounded. Al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden praised the attack. Bin Laden, whose father was of Yemeni origin, had been indicted by the United States for the bombings of the US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania that killed people. In the aftermath of the 11 September terrorist attacks on the United States , attributed to al-Qaeda, the United States focused attention on governments in the world responsible for harboring and supporting terrorists.
Since , the United States has alleged that bin Laden and al-Qaeda targeted US military forces in Yemen, and that al-Qaeda has formed alliances with jihad groups in Yemen. In June , Yemeni officials arrested 9 men believed to be affiliated with the Islamic Army of Aden, a fundamentalist group linked to bin Laden, for the attack on the Cole. The group was responsible for kidnapping 16 Western tourists in December ; four of the hostages were killed in a gun battle between the group and Yemeni government troops. The Islamic Army of Aden advocates the imposition of Islamic law in Yemen, is against the United States or other Western states using Yemeni ports or bases, and supports the lifting of international sanctions against Iraq.
Bush, assuring him that Yemen was a partner in the war on terrorism. In December, Yemen detained some 80 foreign students and teachers from an Islamic fundamentalist institute in the Marib province, where Yemeni special forces were searching for al-Qaeda suspects. In February , Yemen expelled more than foreign Islamic scholars, including British and French nationals, in an effort to curb the spread of terrorism.
Scores of prisoners being held by the United States as a result of its — 02 campaign in Afghanistan are natives of Yemen. In March , the United States was finishing plans to send hundreds of US Special Forces to Yemen, to "advise and assist" Yemeni forces combating armed groups affiliated with al-Qaeda. On 6 October , the French oil tanker Limburg was the target of a terrorist attack in the Gulf of Aden, which killed one crewmember and released 90, barrels of oil.
An explosives-laden boat hit the tanker, in an attack that was similar to the one on the USS Cole. Al-Harethi was also a suspect in the bombing of the Cole. President Saleh called on al-Qaeda members to renounce violence and turn themselves in to face trial in Yemen, as opposed to being turned over to the United States. In December , a North Korean freighter disguised as a Cambodian ship was intercepted in the Arabian Sea and seized at gun point by the US Navy and Spanish marines; the vessel was carrying a shipment bound for Yemen of 15 Scud missiles, warheads, and an agent used in Scud fuel.
President Bush ordered the shipment released after concluding the Yemen-North Korean deal was concluded on a legal basis. Also in December, a Yemeni Muslim extremist killed three American doctors and wounded a pharmacist by opening fire in a Baptist hospital in the town of Jibla. On 20 February , Yemen amended its constitution to extend the presidential term of office from 5 to 7 years, and to reorganize the bicameral parliament. Also in February, municipal elections were held for the first time. In the summer of , government forces battled supporters of an anti-American Shia cleric, Hussein al-Houthi, in the northern part of the country.
Estimates of the dead ranged from 80 to According to the government, Al-Houthi's group, called "Believing Youth," attempted to model itself after Lebanon 's Hezbollah , and receives foreign funding. In September , government forces killed al-Houthi. However, from March to May , fighting resumed between government troops and supporters of the slain al-Houthi; more than people were killed.
In July , scores of people across the country were killed in clashes between police and demonstrators protesting a reduction in fuel subsidies. The poor were most affected. The YAR constitution affirmed Islamic law as the basis of all legislation and established the unicameral Consultative Assembly as the supreme legislative body. The assembly was authorized to name the president and to appoint the ruling Executive Council.
In the first national elections, held in , voters selected members of the Consultative Assembly; the president appointed the 40 remaining members. This body was dissolved in , and in , the Constituent People's Assembly replaced it, with 99 members elected and 60 members appointed by the president for a two-year term.
In the General People's Congress GPC , created in , of the 1, members were elected, with the other appointed by the government. Between meetings held every two years , the GPC's affairs were to be handled by a member standing committee. The president, elected by the Constituent People's Assembly for a five-year term, served as secretary-general of the GPC and commander-in-chief of the armed forces and appointed the prime minister and a ministerial council.
The Supreme People's Council, which had members elected by universal suffrage at age 18, enacted laws; elected a Presidium and its chairman, who served as head of state; and chose the prime minister and the Council of Ministers. The YSP apparatus and the organs of government were closely intertwined. The unity constitution established a political system based on free, multiparty elections. During the transitional period a presidential council was created with five members, three from the North and two from the South, to oversee executive operations.
The council appointed a prime minister who picked a member cabinet. A member parliament was also formed, with members chosen from the North, from the South, and 31 at large. Constitutional amendments in eliminated the presidential council, and provided that the president would be elected by popular vote from at least two candidates selected by the legislature.
In , Yemen held its first direct presidential elections. Legislative elections were again held in , with the GPC maintaining its majority seats. Islaah won 61 seats and the YSP took Following the civil war, the GPC and Islaah formed a unity government. The next parliamentary elections were in April The GPC maintained its dominance taking of seats. On 20 February , new constitutional amendments extended the presidential term of office from five to seven years, and extended the parliamentary term of office to six years.
The president may now serve a maximum of two seven-year terms. A bicameral legislature was created, consisting of an upper house, the Consultative Council or Shura Council, with seats appointed by the president; and a House of Representatives composed of members elected by popular vote. The next presidential election was slated for ; President Saleh promised he would step down. Suffrage is universal at The National Liberation Front, which emerged in as the strongest faction in the disputes before South Yemen's independence, became the United Political Organization — National Front in and changed its name to the Yemeni Socialist Party YSP in , when two smaller leftist parties were merged with it.
This Marxist-Leninist organization, the PDRY's lone political party , was the only group to offer candidates in the legislative elections and survived to represent southern interests in the unified Yemen. In preunification north Yemen, political parties in the Western sense played no role. Tribal allegiances were more important political factors. The second-largest bloc in the parliament was held by the Islaah Party The Yemeni Congregation for Reform , a fusion of tribal and Islamic interests that opposed the unity constitution because it did not sufficiently adhere to Islamic principles.
At least 40 smaller parties have been active in the politics of unified Yemen, but the GPC, Islaah, and the YSP are the only ones of national significance. After the civil war, the GPC and Islaah formed a coalition government to establish civil order. In the April legislative election the GPC won a landslide victory and no longer governed in coalition with Islaah. The YSP boycotted the April legislative election. In September , Yemen held the first direct presidential elections ever held on the Arabian peninsula. Longtime president Saleh captured Led by the YSP, a coalition of opposition groups boycotted this election.
The next legislative elections were scheduled for The YAR was divided into 11 governorates muhafazat , each headed by a governor. Each governorate contained a varying number of sectors nawahi. Traditional divisions still extant included the uzlah, a group of villages qura of people who belong to the same tribe, headed by a sheikh; and the mahall, a group of houses administratively subordinate to a village.
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The central government retained ultimate authority over local officials, although certain administrative sanctions were granted to traditional local rulers. In an effort to de-emphasize older loyalties and associations, the PDRY government created a highly centralized state and divided the country into six governorates, all closely controlled by the central authorities.
Each had an appointed governor, and each was divided into districts, which were also administered by appointed officials. The unified government established 17 governorates, subdivided into districts. In the countryside, especially in the north and east, tribal authority is often stronger than formal government institutions. There are 20 governorates, and district municipalities. The government has taken steps to implement decentralization.
Municipal elections were held for the first time in February Authority over local planning, development, and administration is consolidated in municipal councils. The February elections included 26, candidates for 6, district municipal council seats and over 2, candidates for provincial council seats. Those elected served a two-year term.
A Supreme Judicial Council administers the judiciary, appointing and promoting judges and reviewing policies regarding the structure and functioning of the judicial system. There are courts of first instance, which hear civil, criminal, commercial, and family matters; decisions can be appealed to courts of appeal.
The Supreme Court rules on the constitutionality of laws, hears cases brought against high government officials, and is the last court of appeal for all lower court decisions. The judiciary, especially at the lower levels, is susceptible to pressure and influence from the executive branch. All laws are codified from Shariah, and there are no jury trials. In addition to regular courts, a system of tribal adjudication exists for some noncriminal issues, although the tribal "judges" often hear criminal cases as well. The former YAR judicial system consisted of Shariah law and courts for criminal and family law areas administered in each district by a hakim and commercial law and courts for business matters.
In remote areas, tribal law was applied in tribal courts. Both sets of courts were considered generally fair and impartial. Former YAR state security courts were abolished with unification. The former PDRY court system was organized in three tiers: Magistrate courts handled most criminal, juvenile, family, housing, agrarian and other minor civil matters. Provincial courts handled more serious criminal cases, inheritance cases, major civil claims, and appeals from magistrates' courts. Shariah courts applying Islamic law and tribal courts applying traditional law also existed alongside the modern court system.
In , the active armed forces of Yemen numbered 66, The Army had 60, active members, and was equipped with main battle tanks, reconnaissance vehicles, armored infantry fighting vehicles, armored personnel carriers and 1, artillery pieces towed. The Navy had 1, active personnel. The Air Force, in had 5, members, including 2, air defense personnel. The service had 75 combat capable aircraft, including 41 fighters and 30 fighter ground attack aircraft. The Air Force also had eight attack helicopters.
The country's paramilitary forces totaled 70, personnel, which were comprised of 50, Ministry of Interior Forces, and tribal levies in excess of 20, A coast guard is slowly being established. Yemen is on good terms with both conservative and radical Arab states. Traditionally an agricultural area, northern Yemen was self-sufficient in food and a net exporter of agricultural product until the Civil War in the s and a prolonged drought in the early s. In the late s and early s many farmers switched from labor intensive food crops to the more profitable cultivation of qat, a mild stimulant chewed by many Yemenis that has no significant export market.
The southern city of 'Aden, with its port and refinery, is the economic and commercial center of the country. The Yemeni economy depends on imports of wheat, flour, rice, and other foodstuffs. Trade deficits have been offset by remittances from Yemenis working abroad and by foreign aid. However, with no new significant finds, oil resources could be commercially depleted within 5 to 20 years. Following the unification of the country in , responsibility for development of the oil sector fell to the state-owned general corporation for oil and mineral resources.
Civil war in disturbed output. Oil output has been declining since , and over dry wells have been drilled, suggesting that the industry has passed its peak. In , proven oil reserves totaled 4 billion barrels. Although Yemen's oil output declined each year from — 05, from , barrels per day in to , barrels per day in the first nine months of the country hoped to boost output to , barrels per day in the late s.
When Yemen aligned with Iraq during the Gulf War , Saudi Arabia and the Gulf states, Yemen's main aid donors and hosts to large numbers of Yemeni workers and their families, ended the Yemenis' privileged status. Following the civil conflict in , the government began a five-year program in that removed all controls on the exchange rate and cut the interest rate, as well as initialized trade policy reform, privatization, and the elimination of price controls.
A new liquefied natural gas drilling project promised exploitation of Yemen's billion cu m 17 trillion cu ft of gas reserves in subsequent years, although in US companies ExxonMobil and Hunt Oil withdrew from the project, leaving the French-based company, TotalFinaElf Total as the lead investor.
However, Hunt later retracted its withdrawal. In , the government approved three liquefied natural gas LNG supply agreements for 6. Yemen subsequently awarded an engineering, procurement, and construction contract for the project. Gross domestic product GDP grew at an average rate of 3. Low oil prices in held real GDP growth to 3. A stabilization in oil prices combined with declines in the growth of agricultural output, electricity and manufactures, attributable more to the domestic lack of rain than to the global economic slowdown, reduced GDP growth to 3. An increase to Yemen's real GDP grew 2.
In , agriculture made up Most people are employed in agriculture and herding; services, construction, industry, and commerce account for less than one fourth of the labor force. Yemen is one of the 25 poorest and economically least developed countries in the world with about a third of the population living in poverty. In , the inflation rate was estimated at 9.
The decision followed sustained pressure on the government from the IMF and World Bank to cut subsidies and introduce a sales tax , with the aim of curtailing government spending. Rioting and demonstrations followed the government's decision to eliminate the subsidies, and 22 people were killed in the violence. In late July , the government rolled back the price increases. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity PPP rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars.
The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 2. The average inflation rate in was 9. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period to household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 3.
It was estimated that in about In , Yemen's workforce was estimated at 5. According to figures the latest year for which data was available , United Yemen enacted a new labor code in , amended in which guaranteed the rights of unionization and collective bargaining. The government restricts this right by placing government officials in union positions of prominence. The Yemeni Confederation of Labor Unions , the country's only labor confederation, had , members in 14 unions in There exists a limited right to strike. All collective bargaining agreements must be reviewed by the minister of labor.
There is no nationally fixed minimum wage. Average wages do not provide a family with a decent standard of living. Although children under the age of 15 are prohibited from working, child labor is common, especially in rural regions. The labor code calls for a maximum eight-hour workday and a hour workweek.
Yemen, with its wide range of arable climatic zones, has the greatest potential for agricultural development of any nation on the Arabian Peninsula. Traditionally, Yemen was famous for its coffee, shipped from the port of Al-Mukha, from which the English word mocha derives. The main cash crop is qat, a mild stimulant chewed by many Yemenis on a daily basis, but not exported significantly because it is highly perishable. Industrial farming of fruits and vegetables, using modern irrigation techniques, provides a level of production to nearly satisfy domestic demand. As a high-cost producer, Yemen is not yet able to internationally compete in marketing its produce, especially since such exports are often blocked at the borders.
Agriculture output in in 1, tons included sorghum, ; tomatoes, ; wheat, ; grapes, ; bananas, 99; seed cotton, 29; sesame seed, 19; coffee, 11; and cotton, 9. Animal husbandry is a key sector of the economy, and the export of hides and skins has long been an important source of foreign exchange. In , the livestock population was estimated at 5,, sheep, 4,, goats, 1,, head of cattle, , donkeys, and , camels. Commercial production of poultry in Yemen began in the mids.
The brief civil conflict in hurt the industry by driving up the costs of imported feed and vaccines. About 87, tons of poultry and 32, tons of eggs were marketed in The annual fish catch in was about , tons. Principal species of that catch included Indian and Spanish mackerel, cuttlefish, lobster, and scavengers. Fish-processing plants are located at Al 'udaydah and Al-Mukalla.
Pearl and coral diving have been practiced for centuries. Forest and woodland coverage is negligible. Forests once covered Yemen, but overgrazing by goats and the systematic cutting of timber for fuel and construction have almost completely eliminated the forest cover, especially in the south. Roundwood production totaled , cu m Until the discovery of petroleum, the preeminent segment of the Yemeni economy, the mineral industry, had been limited to the production of cement, dimension stone, gypsum, and salt.
In , production of cement amounted to 1,, metric tons. Other mineral commodities produced in were: The government was focusing on creating conditions favorable to foreign investment, to develop the nation's mineral resources. The government had exclusive domain over the precious stone and hydrocarbon industries; mining legislation guaranteed the rights of private property for all other commodities.
Yemen is a small non-OPEC producer of oil and has the potential to be an exporter of natural gas. Yemen, as of 1 January , had proven reserves of crude oil estimated at 4 billion barrels, according to the Oil and Gas Journal. Oil production in was estimated at , barrels per day. With domestic consumption of oil in that year estimated at 83, barrels per day, the country was a net exporter of oil. In , net exports were estimated at , barrels per day.
Yemen: Picture Book (Educational Children's Books Collection) - Level 2 (Planet Collection 179)
Yemen's crude oil refining capacity, as of 1 January , was estimated at , barrels per day, based upon a pair of aging refineries, the 'Aden refinery and the Marib refinery. The capacity of the 'Aden refinery had declined from , barrels per day before the civil war to , barrels per day as of 1 January The newer Marib plant has a capacity of 10, barrels daily. Yemen has proven natural gas reserves estimated, as of 1 January , at As of , there was no systematic production of natural gas. Whatever gas is produced results from the oil extraction process and is re-injected.
Most of the known reserves are concentrated in the Marib-Jawf fields. Total electricity production in was estimated at 3. Total installed capacity in was estimated at , kW, and was entirely based on conventional thermal sources. Demand for electricity in , was estimated at 3. In northern Yemen industry traditionally has been based on food processing, but this subsector has suffered from poor productivity of agriculture and reliance on imported raw materials. Building materials , textiles, leather wear, jewelry, and glass making are other industries in the north.
The largest industry in southern Yemen is petroleum refining. Southern manufactures include clothing, processed food, metal products, soap, and perfumes. Industrial production accounts for Yemen's main refinery at 'Aden processed 60, barrels of petroleum per day in after sustaining damage in the civil war. Output reached , barrels per day by the start of with the repair of the main pumping station and two tapping units.
That year, the refinery produced In , Yemen's total refinery capacity was , barrels per day, most from the ,barrels-per-day-capacity 'Aden refinery operated by the 'Aden Refinery Company ARC , and the rest from a 10,barrels-per-day refinery at Marib operated by Yemen Hunt Oil Company. Another refinery is planned for Ra's Isa with a capacity of 60, barrels per day, to be completed in Yemen's considerable natural gas reserves — estimated at billion cu m In , the Yemeni government approved three LNG supply agreements for 6.
The government then awarded an engineering, procurement, and construction contract for the project. In , more than 25 companies bid on a domestic gas utilization and pipeline feasibility study for a proposed mile pipeline that would transport gas from Marib to a power station at Mabar. As of , the government was preparing a new investment plan to utilize Yemen's fish wealth, to attract Arab and foreign investment to the sector.
Thirty-six sites were identified for fish cultivation. In May , the first factory for the canning and exporting of fish was set up by a Saudi company. There was also German interest in establishing a fish cultivation site in Hadhramawt. Fish production increased to , tons between January and September , an increase of Fish sector revenues rank second after oil revenues for the economy.
Yemen ranked fourth among Arab fish exporting countries after Morocco, Mauritania , and Egypt in The fish sector created , jobs in compared with , in Construction of a , metric-ton-per-year-capacity rolling mill at Hodaidah for Al-Rahabi Trading Group was expected to be completed in The government's economic diversification project would be helped by the development of metal deposits and additional industrial mineral deposits.
In , Yemen produced more than 1. The University of 'Aden, founded in at Al-Mansoora, has faculties of science, arts, and education; agriculture; engineering; and medicine. At the center of most towns is a market place sug , the lanes of which are lined with open-front booths where food, clothing, and implements are displayed and sold.
Some goods are bartered. Others sold for cash, usually after bargaining. The production of qat , a mild stimulant which many Yemenis chew, plays an important role in domestic trade. Corruption among civil servants is a common element of domestic commerce — soldiers at checkpoints confiscate money or qat , and businesses are often obliged to pay off local officials.
Customary business hours are from 8 am to 1 pm and from 4 pm to 7 pm, Saturday through Thursday. Banks are open from 8 am to noon Other exports in recent years have included coffee and dried and salted fish; imports included food and live animals, machinery and equipment, and manufactured goods. In , Yemen's primary export partners were: Yemen's balance of payments was adversely affected in the early s, as other nations sought to economically punish Yemen for its support of Iraq during the Persian Gulf War.
As of the early s, Yemen's balance of payments position had substantially improved: Yemen's bilateral and multilateral debt situation had also improved, with debt to Russia reduced, debt rescheduling by the Paris Club, and financing from the World Bank and IMF. The state-owned Yemen Bank for Reconstruction and Development YBRD , founded in , finances development activities, and the International Bank of Yemen, organized in , operates as a commercial bank. The economic recovery in and the partial liberalization of interest rates on bank deposits appear to have succeeded in encouraging the growth in savings as reflected in higher quasimonetary holdings.
In , there were 11 commercial banks 9 private and 2 public and two public sector specialized banks Agriculture and Housing operating under the jurisdiction of CBY. There were also three Islamic banks in operation. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was There were at least 10 insurance firms in the Yemen in Much of the Yemen's insurance business is transacted abroad.
In , there was Public debt in amounted to The International Monetary Fund IMF reported that in , the most recent year for which it had data, budgetary central government revenues were yr, million and expenditures were yr, million. Government outlays by function were as follows: Personal income taxes are levied on wage workers and the self-employed. Capital gains are included in taxable income and are taxed at the corporate rate.
Other taxes include excise duties, road and vehicle taxes, port fees, a tax on rents, and telegraph fees. The state also derives income from the confiscated property of the imamate. Another tax is the 2. Yemeni businessmen have been trying to abolish Zakat as an obligatory levy entirely, leaving it to the discretion of each individual to give to the needy. The chronic budget deficits of the s forced the government to place considerably more emphasis on the traditionally lax collection of taxes. In early a general sales tax GST was signed into law, but its implementation was delayed pending a review of the country's indirect tax system.
Surcharges are added to these basic rates to cover defense expenditures, to finance schools and orphanages, and to assist the poor. Export duties are levied on a variety of products. Interestingly, in the government renounced the secondary and tertiary aspects of the Arab League's boycott of Israel, but will not renounce the primary aspect until the Arab League gives up the boycott completely by consensus of the member nations.
Foreign investment is encouraged by the Yemeni government as it is prospecting for more oil and hoping to develop its natural gas reserves. Investment law restructuring is part of the IMF-World Bank-sponsored economic reform program that has been being pursued in Yemen since In Phase II of the program, 30 hectares were made available for lease.
There are no reliable statistics on foreign investment in Yemen. US investment has mainly been in the oil and gas sector. Its pipelines have been repeatedly attacked. Security can not help but be a concern for Western investors given events like the kidnapping of 16 tourists in with four killed in the rescue attempt; a bomb explosion at the 'Aden Refinery in , the bombing of the USS Cole in 'Aden Harbor in October , with 17 dead, and in , the explosion and fire on the French-flagged tanker the Limburg, with one killed and 90, barrels of oil spilled.
More hopeful is the settlement of its debt issues with Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, which has thus made Yemen eligible for concessional loans from these neighboring states. In , a consortium was established for the development of natural gas production. In Exxon now ExxonMobil and Hunt Oil withdrew from this enterprise, which has stalled for lack of an identifiable market through which the investors could recoup their investments. As of , the Chinese Bank for Exports and Imports was considering funding the building of Yemen's first railway.
In addition to Chinese investments, an overall increase in foreign investment was projected for the late s. Up to the end of June , the volume of Arab and foreign investment in Yemen reached approximately yr billion; investment in the industrial sector had reached yr The services sector ranked second, at yr After unification in , the new government assumed all debts incurred by former governments. Domestic political strains ultimately culminated in civil strife in As a result, the economy was further burdened with reconstruction costs.
The government launched a major reform program in The government's medium-term goal was to eliminate all subsidies by — Fiscal and monetary measures included the containment of primary nondevelopment budget expenditures, partial reform of the exchange system including currency depreciation , interest rate reform, and monetary management reforms. Furthermore, transportation and communication charges were deregulated, health and education fees were increased, and privatization programs were initiated.
In , 16 public enterprises were targeted for privatization. Laws prohibiting foreign investment in certain industrial sectors were abolished in International aid has an ongoing role in the economy's development. Yemen benefited when Russia was admitted to the Paris Club an organization of countries owed money from past official loans. Yemen's fiscal imbalance has also improved in recent years, helped considerably by recovering oil prices. The fiscal deficit reached 6. In and , the government continued to run surpluses of revenues and grants over expenditures, amounting to 2.
Public debt was The inflation rate was estimated at 9. In the parliament signed into law a general sales tax GST , but implementation of this major tax reform designed to broaden and rationalize the tax base was delayed with IMF approval while more information about the effect of indirect taxation was collected. Yemen remains one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world.
With a population growth rate of 3. About one-third of households are considered to be living in poverty. Water scarcity poses a severe challenge. The water crisis involves a depletion of groundwater, so that economic activity may become unsustainable in some areas.
The growing of qat , while lucrative for many rural dwellers, consumes a disproportionately high amount of water, and accounts for half of irrigation water use in Yemen. The fertility rate is 6. In , the World Bank announced it would increase its allocations for Yemen for the following three years, but only if the country's economic performance improved.
In January , the Yemeni government announced a third five-year development plan for poverty reduction, which was geared toward integrating the national economy with the international economy. Yemen hoped for accession to the WTO at that time, and was pushing for trade and industrial development. The five-year plan aimed to set up new industrial zones to improve opportunities for medium and small industries, and to set up a fund for industrial development. The plan also has measures to stimulate investment, including reforming the legal structure.
Small industries are to be developed, such as crafts, clothes, and foodstuffs, so that they may compete in foreign markets. The plan called for measures to protect the environment from pollution, and to meet international standards regarding the protection of the environment. A social insurance system provides old age, disability, survivor, and workers' compensation benefits. This program covers most employees, including Yemeni nationals working overseas. The government contributes as an employer only. Old age benefits are payable at age 60 with at least 15 years of contributions for men, and age 55 with at least 10 years of contributions for women.
A health insurance program exists only for public employees. While the government has expanded its role in providing assistance, traditional means still predominate. Although the constitution provides for equal rights and opportunity for all, women face considerable official and social discrimination. Polygamy is legal, and the practice of paying large dowries continues to be widespread. Women are required to obtain permission from a male member of the family in order to leave the house, and are rarely allowed to travel unaccompanied.
Women have limited access to education. Estimates place the illiteracy rate for women at Child marriage is common, and some girls marry as early as 12 years old.
BUY ON AMAZON'S NEVER EASY
Women are permitted to vote, but social customs discourage most women from becoming politically active. The law states that a wife must obey her husband. Violence against women and children is prevalent but considered a family issue and not reported to authorities. Although reports of arbitrary arrest and detention continue, Yemen's human rights record remained poor, and the government continued to commit serious abuses in However, some international and domestic human rights organizations operate in Yemen.
Malaria, typhus, tuberculosis, dysentery, whooping cough , measles, hepatitis, schistosomiasis, and typhoid fever are widespread, and sewage disposal of the most rudimentary type constitutes a general health hazard. Civil conflict in July created a shortage of water, food, and medical supplies in 'Aden, exacerbating health problems. As of , there were an estimated 22 physicians, 45 nurses, and 1 dentist per , people.
Total health care expenditure was estimated at 5. Life expectancy in was estimated at As of , the crude birth rate and overall mortality rate were estimated at, respectively, 43 and 9. Housing is inadequate; about one-fourth of urban housing units are huts, tents, or other makeshift structures. In the hot coastal region, most dwellings, except those of the ruling classes, are straw huts.