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History, Literature, and Landscape , Tokyo: Heibonsha, , Kajiyama, who grew up in Seoul, often wrote about conflict in Korean-Japanese relations. The Making of a Korean American , Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, , A number of Korean-language magazines also managed to continue operations throughout the duration of Japanese rule. Even after this campaign had begun, Koreans who had changed their names used their Korean names on certain occasions, particularly when participating as instruments of Japanese wartime propaganda, such as in the media and cinema.

Duke University Press, , University of Chicago Press, University of Washington Press, A very large number were women from Korea and China. Other women…were rounded up at gunpoint…. Robinson argues this on two occasions. Myers and Mark R. Issues in Culture and Democracy, , ed. The following two Government-General reports, issued in the late s, warned that Korean national sentiment would continue to develop as long as the Japanese administration permitted Koreans exposure to their culture.

Japanese National Diet Library. Occupation and Japanese Politics and Society , ed. Caprio and Yoneyuki Sugita, London: Routledge, , Everything was a strange contrast from what we had left; the cold colouring of Manchuria was replaced by a warm red soil, through which the first tokens of spring were beginning to appear. Instead of the blue clothing to which we had been accustomed, every one here was clad in white, both in town and country. Rice fields greet the eye at every turn, for this is the main cereal grown.

The only things that were the same were the Japanese line and the Japanese official, no more conspicuous here than in Manchuria, and apparently firmly rooted in both. Kemp had traveled through China several times before, but this was her first sight of Korea, and it gave her a vivid sense of entering a new world.

Kemp is an oddly forgotten traveler. While precursors and contemporaries like Isabella Bird and Gertrude Bell have been the subjects of much research and writing, Kemp remains a virtual unknown. Yet she was a remarkable woman: Most extraordinary of all, perhaps, was her impassioned love of China, which survived and grew despite the terrible fate that overtook her family on Chinese soil: Her journey through Korea was beset by problems from the very start: Chiao, to accompany them on their travels.

It was true that in the early twentieth century all Korean literati could read Chinese characters, but the travelers quickly discovered that most of the people they met on their journey were not literati, and the hapless Mr. Chiao spent much of his time hunting for local scholars or officials with whom he could communicate through messages written on scraps of paper or scratched into the dirt of unpaved roads. His task was not helped by the fact that their itinerary through Korea had been planned on a German map which rendered some place names into Germanized approximations that were utterly impossible to correlate with Korean, Japanese or Chinese equivalents.

In spite of these handicaps, with the help of missionaries, English-speaking Koreans and Japanese, sign language and Mr. The exchanges of ideas that she achieved across the language barrier left Emily Kemp with a generally warm and positive image of Korea: The formal annexation of Korea in August was the culmination of a long process of colonial penetration, rather than its beginning.

The European and other Powers who have wrangled over the possibility of commercial and political advantages to be obtained from the Chinese Government after the Boxer troubles have withdrawn to a certain extent, but like snarling dogs dragged from their prey, they still keep their covetous eyes upon it, and both Russia and Japan continue steadily but silently to strengthen their hold on its borders. These borders are Manchuria and Korea, and it is in this direction that fresh developments must be expected. A century on, the region where Kemp traveled is once again in the grip of momentous transformations.

The rise of China is overturning the old certainties of regional and global power relations. As the world confronts economic crises, China, the last major self-proclaimed Communist power, has ironically come to hold the key to the future of global capitalism. Above all, though, a century after the annexation, it is the fate of the Korean Peninsula that lies in the balance: Some of her stopping points: There is no way to travel directly from North to South of the Korean Peninsula, and our journey had to take a more complex and serpentine course.

Korea today is a peninsula divided, not just by barbed wire, mines and all the monstrous machinery of modern warfare, but also by words. Our North Korean driver Mr. The rival governments on either side of the divide have developed different systems for converting Korean characters into the Roman alphabet, causing endless problems for people myself included who write books in English containing place names in both North and South.

Most troublesome of all is the divide in the name given to the country itself. When Cold War Germany was divided in two, both halves at least still called themselves Deutschland. But in Korea, the regimes on either side of the Cold War dividing line chose to inherit different versions of the historical name for Korea. The search for a shared name is just one of the multitude of roadblocks that litter the path towards reunification. The problem of names also has other, more subtle effects. Not only Koreans themselves but also their neighbours, the Japanese and Chinese, have come since to use their own versions of the two different names for the two halves of the peninsula and its people.

But the debate also serves to deepen a strange shadow in Japanese memory — a shadow that obscures recollections of colonial expansion in the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. Few of the Japanese media consider how Japan and its other neighbour, North Korea, might come together to commemorate the memory of the annexation.

Chiao and the Korean missionary walking behind while conducting a silent conversation in written Chinese characters, the two women were carried in their chairs through streets lined with stalls selling a multitudinous array of unfamiliar foods: As the child of a socially-conscious industrial revolution pioneer, she wholeheartedly welcomed the modern medicine, hygiene and education which foreign intruders brought to Manchuria and Korea.

But, as a traveler who delighted in the exotic landscapes, sounds and physical sensations of Asia, she lamented the vanishing traditions displaced by modernity. Unlike other parts of Korea, where the heavy work of water-carrying was often done by women, the water-carriers of Pyongyang were mostly men, who bore their precious burden in pails on their backs.

By , however, the Japanese authorities, already in de facto control of the city, had just completed new waterworks on the banks of the broad Taedong River which flows through the centre of Pyongyang, and on Rungna Islet in the middle of the river itself. The Waterworks of Pyongyang under Construction, c. The waterworks were just part of a profound colonial reshaping of the city, whose influence can still be seen throughout the centre of Pyongyang today.

Visiting Pyongyang almost two decades before Kemp, the missionary James Gale had found an ancient city still enclosed in high walls. In the remote beginnings of recorded history, the area around Pyongyang was a place of intense interaction between Korean and Chinese kingdoms, and high on Moranbong, the forested hill overlooking the Taedong River, stood a weathered monument which for almost a millennium was revered as the tomb of the semi-mythical Chinese figure Kija.

Known as Jizu in Chinese, Kija was said to have fled from Shang China to Korea more than a thousand years before the start of the Common Era, and to have ruled the northern part of the country from Pyongyang. But in disaster struck Pyongyang. The city had the misfortune to lie in the path of Japanese troops as they marched northward towards the Yalu River, and of the Chinese army as it sought to confront them, and so became the site of one of the fiercest conflicts of the Sino-Japanese War of After the battle, the city of Pyongyang wrote Gale ,.

A Korean with his wife and three children, escaped through the thick of the fight, and by climbing the wall reached safety. He had been a man of some means, but of course had lost everything. He said he was thankful he had his three children spared to him. The little black-eyed girl had heard and seen that night what she would never forget — the rattle of Murata rifles and the other hideous accompaniments of war.

In this new Pyongyang, however, parts of the old were carefully preserved. Emily Kemp climbed the forested slope of Moranbong and found the tomb surrounded by a dense grove of pine trees. Like most visitors, they were captivated by the breathtaking view from Moranbong over the sparkling river and the fields and hills beyond. The further she traveled in Korea, the more Kemp became aware of a dark side to colonial modernity — a cultural violence that went beyond the irresistible retreat of the past in the face of encroaching modernity. Even in these final months before the formal annexation of Korea, the Japanese government continued to disavow any plans for full-scale colonization, insisting that their presence was merely a protectorate exercised with the consent of the Korean king.

It is little use to repudiate the idea of annexation, when they trample on the dearest wishes of the Korean, and treat him as a vanquished foe. The Pyongyang landscape which entranced Emily Kemp when she visited Moranbong can be seen in even greater splendour from the landmark to which every foreign visitor is taken today: Kija, with his foreign and colonial associations, has fallen out of fashion and his tomb has been destroyed; for Juche Thought is above all else profoundly nationalistic.

From the summit of the soaring white tower, surmounted by its stained glass flame, you can look out to every side across the city, and over the glittering midnight green waters of the Taedong river flowing serenely through its heart. The broad avenues and squares of the city are kept immaculately clean by legions of track-suited residents, performing their required civic duties with trowels, dustpans and brooms.

The occasional truck or bus clatters past, but most of the traffic is pedestrian. The people of Pyongyang — men in black suits or army uniforms, women in demure skirts and blouses, children in school uniforms or sports gear — move with the distinctive gait of those used to walking long distances: In the parks along the banks of the Taedong, with their neatly trimmed grass and disciplined topiary, the citizens fish, smoke, or squat in the shade of trees, reading books.

There is a strange resonance to the open spaces of Pyongyang, a deep silence lying beneath the blasts of martial music and mournful electronic midday and midnight chimes that issue from above the rooftops. Before a truck or bus appears, you can hear its approaching sound from far away, and the deepening grind of its engine continues to reverberate long after it has disappeared from view: When, in my early teens, I first lived in a big city, I would wake at night and listen in terror to that sound — the deep inhuman endless roar of the metropolis.

Now the sound of the city has become so familiar that like most people I no longer hear it; but in Pyongyang, I hear its resounding absence. At breakfast in the huge dining room of our hotel, with its white linen tablecloths and crystal chandeliers, there is no menu, but only a rather shy waitress who seems very eager to please. After some consultation and a long wait, she produces large quantities of bread and fried eggs, and quite drinkable hot coffee.

At the table next to ours an extended family, ranging from frail grandmother to small children, is conducting a conversation in a mixture of Korean and Japanese. Ryu, tell us that this hotel is often used by Korean families from Japan and even the United States who have come to North Korea to meet long-lost relatives. Later we see the same family on the steps of the hotel. The grandmother stands shakily, bent double over a walking stick. There are tears pouring down her face. Ryu is up early, revising his text for the day as he waits to meet us in the lobby. Although he is a older than his female colleague, he is we discover a newcomer to this job, having completed his military service and also worked as a researcher for some years before becoming a guide.

His English is less polished than Ms. He does not really seem the military type, though. He looks more like a schoolteacher, which he was briefly before becoming a soldier. His black suit hangs loosely from his tall and gangly form, and the real loves of his life, I suspect, are his wife and the baby daughter whose photo he carries around with him in his wallet.

In the car, as we drive beside the Taedong River, he rather bashfully shows us the little image of a tiny round face surmounted by tufty hair, and for a moment his eyes lose their sadness and are illuminated with a smile of pure fatherly joy. Just as most Japanese people have forgotten the devastation of Pyongyang during the Sino-Japanese War, so most Americans, British, Australians and others have forgotten or have perhaps never been aware of the obliteration of Pyongyang during the Korean War. The North Korean government does little to remind them.

The memory of war is tangible everywhere in the city, but the stories that are commemorated are those of heroic resistance and brilliant victory. And on the occasion of this war our Great Leader ordered that in one month we must liberate the whole South Korea. But our soldiers had not many weapons and the American aggressors brought massive reinforcements from their own country and from the Mediterranean Fleet and from the Pacific Fleet, and with these reinforcements they temporarily occupied some areas of the North, including Pyongyang, so our Great Leader Kim Il-Sung ordered our soldiers to temporarily retreat to the north.

The Chol Pass diorama, brought to life with the aid of melodramatic sound and light depicting enemy planes swooping low over the pass and the crackle of anti-aircraft fire, is she says very popular with children. But everyday stories of human suffering fit uneasily with this strident official narrative — in which North Korea the victim is instantly transformed into North Korea the victor. I look in vain for a commemoration of two days in the life of Pyongyang that I read about shortly before leaving Australia: As we leave the museum, our Mr.

Ryu remarks in passing, and without any noticeable sign of bitterness, that both his grandfathers and one of his grandmothers were killed in the Korean War. Such stories are commonplace here. The new city that rose from the chemical saturated rubble was revolutionary defiance expressed in concrete, stone and marble. Pyongyang was to be the living embodiment of Juche Thought. Its buildings would be grander, its entertainments more lavish, its culture more elevated than anything other capitals could offer.

The Tower of the Juche Idea, at metres, is 70 centimeters taller than the Washington Monument, which it closely resembles. Ryu explains displaying the fruits of his careful homework it is sixty metres high and fifty meters wide, while the French version stands at less than fifty metres in height and is a paltry 45 metres in width. The main road that once bisected the Japanese business district of Yamato Machi Japan Town was straightened and broadened in the s, and given a new name: Today it is Victory Street — like the Arch of Triumph, a commemoration of the defeat of colonialism. Pyongyang is a reward for virtue.

To live in the capital is the ultimate mark of success, for more than almost any other capital city Pyongyang is dominated by the presence of the social and political elite. Guard posts on the roads into the city carefully protect it from any influx of undesirable rural poor. The apartment blocks that face onto the wide main streets present a bland superficial face of modernity.

Emily Kemp would be horrified.

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Yet looking down from the summit of the Tower of the Juche Idea, you can see how each of the older apartment complexes forms a square surrounding and containing lines of rickety grey roofed one-story cottages: To one side, in a paved expanse worthy of the Palace of Versailles, torrents of surprisingly clear water flow though a series of fountains, waterfalls and ponds, between the crags of miniature mountains, around gnarled pine trees and over rocky causeways.

A group of boys in pioneer uniforms — red scarves round their necks, the cuffs of their white shirts and blue trousers rolled up — balance perilously, with shrieks of delighted fear, on the boulders in the middle of the torrent. Nearby, a newly-wed couple — the bridegroom in a grey suit, the bride in a high-waisted, wide-skirted pink chima jeogori adorned with golden flowers — laughingly play the rock-paper-scissors game as their wedding photographer darts around them selecting the best angle for his shots.

There seem to be few guests in attendance, but several passers-by stop to offer smiles and waves of blessing at the couple. North Korean marriages are still often arranged in traditional fashion by a go-between, who helps to check the political and social pedigree of the partners.

But here as elsewhere in Asia, arranged marriages do not preclude love, and Mr. Ryu promises us that, when his fellow guide and driver are not around to hear, he will tell us the story of how he fell in love with his wife. Ri as we watch the bride pose in front of the fountains. The imposing Methodist Episcopalian church, which Emily Kemp visited and whose bells rang out over central Pyongyang, was at that time just part of a rapidly growing network of Christian churches throughout the city.

The first western missionaries to arrive in Pyongyang had not received a warm welcome. The voyage was a disaster that ended when the ship ran aground, the panicked crew fired cannons into a Korean crowd which had gathered nearby, and the incensed crowd set fire to the vessel, killing all on board.

But after initial hostility, in the first decade of the twentieth century the churches in the northern cities of Wonsan and Pyongyang experienced a sudden conversion boom — perhaps a response to the turmoil of war and encroaching colonialism. The Presbyterian Central Church, a lovely simple building in traditional Korean style, was large enough to contain a thousand worshippers, but when Kemp and MacDougall worshipped there it was often full to overflowing, and thirty-nine new churches had been set up in surrounding areas to accommodate the growing number of converts.

Nowhere observed Kemp could there be found a more attractive sight than the hundreds of white clad women, carrying their books wrapped in cloth tied round their waists in front, or their children tied on behind, the little ones dressed in every colour of the rainbow. These images invite speculation. But, rather unusually for a revolutionary site in a nation dedicated to the Juche Idea, Chilgol contains a church, built in and said to be a replica of the church attended by Kang Pan-Sok. The Chilgol church is just one of two Protestant churches in Pyongyang.

The Pongsu Church, a little nearer to the city centre, is built in a similar unpretentious style, and is attached to noodle factory, where flour sent by Christian aid groups overseas is turned into meals for primary school children and the elderly. Its services are, on special occasions at least, accompanied by hymns sung by a choir of students from Kim Il-Sung University. Pyongyang also boasts Catholic and Russian Orthodox churches, and a mosque in the grounds of the Iranian embassy.

This strange presence of religious structures at the heart of an avowedly atheist country evokes all kinds of questions to which I expect no answers. Clearly, ordinary North Koreans are not free to choose their own religion. Unauthorized possession of a bible, indeed, is likely to bring down the most terrible punishments on the head of the offender. Who, then, are the Koreans who attend the Chilgol, Pongsu and Catholic churches? Hwang Sok-Min stands lost in deep thought, gazing on the beautiful scenery…The inner stage is lit up, and fairies come down on it from the rainbow-spanned sky.

In the revolutionary opera The Song of Kumgang-san Mountain , which premiered in , choruses of fairies provide a backdrop to the story of a family torn apart by the cruelties of Japanese imperialism. After Liberation, the mountains — long denuded by the depredations of wicked Japanese landlords — are transformed into a socialist paradise bedecked with flowers.

This is the very flute that the composer himself played long ago as a young man before being parted from his beloved family, and yes, Sun I is indeed his long lost daughter. The play-within-a-play concludes with the assembled cast heralding the glories of Kim Il-Sung, our Sun. Emily Kemp, on her travels, often encountered pheasants in the forested mountains of Korea, and at Kumusan for the first time we catch a glimpse of a brightly plumed cock pheasant strutting across the manicured lawns.

The opportunity to visit this place is a rather unexpected honour. Until recently, the palace was off limits to all foreigners except official guests of the state. Today, this is the mausoleum where the Eternal President lies in state. Before entering the main precinct, we must hand in all our belongings except for purses. Cameras and cigarettes are particularly sternly forbidden, and a body search is carried out to make sure that none are secreted on our persons.

A green plastic shoe cleaner removes the detritus of the outer world from our feet, and we step onto a conveyor belt that glides silently along immensely long corridors, over the moat and into the realm beyond. Here in Pyongyang, the walls between which we move are lined with marble friezes of cranes — the symbol of eternal life. In North Korea, there is a legend that on 8 July , the day when the Great Leader Kim Il-Sung died, a throng of cranes descended from the sky and gathered on the roofs and walls of his palace.

Beyond the corridors lies a hall watched over by female attendants clad in black velvet Chima jeogori embroidered with golden suns. A vast statue of the lost leader is set at one end of the hall, against a background of the rising sun. As we enter the next chamber, a black-clad attendant hands us each an audio set with an English language explanation of the world beyond. As well as the Iranians, there are several other foreigners in the room, moving quietly through the hall amongst the large and orderly groups of North Korean visitors. The taped narration is intoned in deep and dramatic cadences by a male voice with an unmistakable north-country English accent.

Now we have reached the heart of the mausoleum, but before we enter it, there is a further stage of cleansing. We pass through a gateway where blasts of air sweep away impurities from our clothes and bodies. In the middle of the sanctum beyond stands a glass case, with a long line of people waiting nearby.

We join the line, and then go forward in groups of three to bow our heads before the glass case. I look at the faces of the others in the room. A few of the Korean women wipe away a tear, but the expressions on most faces are difficult to read. The figure in the glass case wears a suit, and his head rests on a traditional Korean pillow. No longer monumental or giant sized, with faint marks of age on his face, he looks as though he is sleeping.

Later, when we eat dinner with a group of guides from another tour party, Sandy who is better than me at asking forthright questions says to one of them,. Some people like to be buried. Some want to come back in another life. Remembering the figure lying in endless state through days and long dark nights in the glass case at the heart of the Kumusan Palace, I suddenly feel filled with sadness for all the butterfly children whom Emily Kemp glimpsed, flying through fleeting shafts of sunshine into the winter gales ahead. She is the author of Exodus to North Korea: Shadows from Japan's Cold War.

Her two most recent books are To the Diamond Mountains: Foreigners and Frontier Controls in the Postwar Era. Harvard University Asia Center, Seikyo Sha, , Entente, , Davis, Korea for Christ New York: See the Japanese film footage of the devastation of Hiroshima on August 6, and its aftermath, the Bikini tests of July and the rapturous account of the American announcer shown in an American newsreel below. This film includes the first images of hibakusha seen in the United States.

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The historical presentation nevertheless hews closely to triumphal American ideas about the bomb, the war and American power: What separates this film above all from its predecessors, is the presence of hibakusha, living witnesses to the horrors of the bombing. Three hibakusha relate their personal experiences in the bombings, bringing a focus to this film that is sorely lacking in most previous made-for-American-television Hiroshima documentaries.

The hibakusha humanize a story usually told in the US with emphasis on the American participants and conveying exclusively their perspectives. To be sure, Enola Gay weapon specialist Morris Jeppson, who died in April , is included in the film, but this time the Enola Gay crewmember is not the only person present in Hiroshima on that day to tell his story. Another important feature in the film is provided by the commentary of scholars.

Rather than limiting their contribution to historical footnoting, the filmmakers include a series of powerful statements that address the morality of the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and the impact of the bombs on the bodies and psyches of the victims at the time and down to the present, framing for the audience exactly why these events have affected the modern world so deeply. National Geographic is to be applauded for letting these voices join with those of Japanese hibakusha to be heard in American homes.

The film is at its weakest when explaining why the bombs were used and what effects they had. Here we find a rote repetition of traditional American narratives of the bombing that can be traced back to August of At several points the film flatly declares, or presents Morris Jeppson the weapon specialist on the Enola Gay, stating that the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki directly ended the war. When Harry Truman introduced the new American weapon to the world and announced the successful nuclear attack on Hiroshima, he used magical language to describe the bomb.

The legacy of this rhetorical strategy is evident when one visits any of the American museums devoted to exhibiting the history of nuclear weapons. These exhibitions invariably focus on the work of Manhattan Project scientists and engineers—emphasizing American techno-culture—rather than on the military use of the bombs and their legacy.

This point is made succinctly in the film by anthropologist Hugh Gusterson who points out that the American narrative of the bombing stops in August of , while the Japanese narrative of the bombing begins in August of and continues forward. The timelines of the American and Japanese narratives cross for only one month, and while the American narrative hails the triumphal technological achievement and then moves directly to victory, the Japanese narrative focuses on the destruction of the two cities, the death of hundreds of thousands, and the legacy of the bombing for survivors.

The magical discourse invoked by Truman was reinforced by the Japanese surrender a week after the bombing of Nagasaki. The idea that the nuclear attacks were the cause of the Japanese surrender is still hotly debated by historians: Consider the retelling of another American truism about the bombings: This classic logic of militarism, that killing is done to save lives, is presented as fact.

That was because we wished in the first attack to avoid, in so far as possible, the killing of civilians. There are many points to consider here. First of all, as the film itself mentions, virtually every major city in Japan had been burned to the ground in the spring of by the firebombing squadrons of Curtis LeMay.

This map purports to show up to 30 important targets in Hiroshima and their scale of damage after the nuclear attack. The map shows conclusively that the two or three most important military targets the Army transport base, Army ordnance depot, food depot and clothing depot are all located in the Ujina port area, and are outside of the area of destruction. The map vividly reveals that the bomb did not target the military assets clustered at Ujina, but rather the city center: Clearly these battles go back to , and even to , within US discourse on the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

They are, however, generally missing from mass culture presentations of this history in the United States. It is typical rather than unusual for this film to avoid such discussions. What sets this film apart however, is its inclusion of interviews and artwork done by hibakusha from Hiroshima. Considering the exclusion of hibakusha from the exhibition of the Enola Gay at the Smithsonian Institute in Washington DC where it is currently on display , this inclusion is noteworthy. Throughout the film, three hibakusha talk about their experiences at the time of the bombing, immediately after the bombing, and about subsequent incidents in their lives.

Tanemori Takashi was an 8 year-old boy playing hide and seek inside his school building with his friends when the bomb detonated. The school building collapsed on top of him and a soldier had to pull him out of the rubble. Tanemori would go on to make many paintings of his experiences, publish a book, and found the Silkworm Peace Institute in California. The testimony of Koko Tanimoto Kondo opens a window onto the later life of the hibakusha.

Tanimoto Kondo was only 8 months old when the bomb was dropped, and so she has no direct memory of the event, but amazingly she holds up the dress she was wearing on the morning that the bomb was detonated. Kondo, a prominent Hiroshima hibakusha and the daughter of Reverend Kiyoshi Tanimoto, the Hiroshima Methodist minister who spearheaded the project that resulted in the medical trip to the US of the so-called Hiroshima Maidens, recounts her experiences as a subject of study by the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission now known as the Radiation Effects Research Foundation.

The US was beginning to systematically manufacture nuclear weaponry and to plan for future nuclear wars. Detailed information on the effects of radiation on the human body was scarce and would become increasingly valuable as the Cold War began.

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The ABCC, originally staffed by American doctors, would later become a joint US-Japanese research institute and its studies still ongoing today would contribute to both military and humanitarian efforts. Kondo recounts her experiences as a subject of study at the ABCC, and her horror and anger at being made to remove her clothes in front of a room full of doctors just as she was entering puberty.

The power of her embarrassment and still tangible rage at this dehumanizing treatment and having her adolescent feelings disregarded in a setting of power inequity illustrates the revictimization of the hibakusha at the hands of the ABCC. An important contribution of the film is its introduction of paintings by the hibakusha. It is worth recalling, however, that these paintings, done decades after the bombings beginning in the s, have been tempered by time. Sociologist Akiko Naono has pointed out that many of the hibakusha she interviewed testify that they softened the depictions in the paintings from the hellish scenes they experienced in part to offer comfort to those who died.

A painting of bodies in the Ota River as Hiroshima burned. The film claims that images of the victims of Hiroshima were withheld from the American public because it was feared that exposure to these images would turn American public opinion against the bombings. This is largely, but not wholly true. It is certainly the case that the primary image of the atomic bomb that most Americans encountered, and still do encounter, is the mushroom cloud high in the sky. Those who have seen images of the cities below have, for the most post seen images of an erased city, void of human beings, and photographed from the air.

These images removed the people from the landscape and suggested that what was bombed was Hiroshima and not the people of Hiroshima. Typical early photograph of Hiroshima published in the United States, seen from the air and without any visible human beings. These landscape images of the vanished city, and the ubiquitous image of the mushroom cloud, became the visual icons of the bombings commonly seen in the west. Photographs showing the dead and injured in Japan were banned in the US and Japan until Nevertheless, some images of hibakusha were seen in America before that ban was lifted.

The first images that I have tracked were included in newsreel footage that discussed the Bikini nuclear tests in , and the first anniversary of the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. See the film of the aftermath of the bombing of Hiroshima and the test at Bikini. The film also contains powerful statements by some of its historical advisors. Anthropologist Hugh Gusterson tries to help viewers understand how the exposure to radiation resulted in psychological trauma that lasts throughout the life of hibakusha, separate from the traumas of the historical experience of the bombings.

Each health problem, however minor, could trigger the deep anxiety that the symptoms were the first sign that the time bomb lurking inside of them had finally gone off. Every fever could be the first sign of impending death. Powerful statements about the immorality of the weapons themselves come from two more commentators. This was a weapon of mass destruction: Rhodes also frames the existential terror that accompanied the bombings, describing how the destruction of the city was more far reaching than the statistics that list the number of dead or of destroyed buildings.

Many independent films and countless publications have examined this history with far more nuanced and critical approaches. But 24 Hours is interesting as a made-for-television and classroom film, one of countless historical documentaries shown repeatedly on basic cable and reflecting the budget and production deadlines inherent in these films. I consider it interesting for just this reason. Much as b-movies from the fifties can open a window on the baseline of cultural attitudes towards issues like gender roles and attitudes towards science and militarism among other things , these documentaries take the current pulse of what is permissible when talking to a general audience about the history of the use of nuclear weapons by the United States during World War Two.

What this film reveals is that, under certain circumstances, it is now possible to incorporate hibakusha in popular representations of the bombings. That it has become possible to reveal the murderous character of the atomic bomb on American cable tv has to be defined as progress. Robert Jacobs is associate professor, Hiroshima Peace Institute and a cultural historian of science working on issues of nuclear culture in American history. He is the author of The Dragon's Tail: Art and Popular Culture Respond to the Bomb. Robert Jacobs, "24 Hours After Hiroshima: See, Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, Racing the Enemy: Harvard University Press, Cambridge University Press, US Government Printing Office, Government Printing Office, Gender and Sexuality in Asia and the Pacific 24 June Susan Lindee, Suffering Made Real: American Science and the Survivors at Hiroshima Chicago: Laurence, Dawn Over Zero: He received a Pulitzer Prize for his reporting on the development and use of nuclear weapons by the United States, a prize that is now considered controversial.

The factsheet that follows, prepared by Nan Kim in conjunction with members of the National Campaign to End the Korean War, provides an informative overview of the dangerous military standoff that has been unfolding on the Korean Peninsula ever since South Korea conducted a 4-hour artillery exercise on November The exercise was conducted on Yeonpyeong Island, populated at the time by 1, South Korean soldiers and 1, civilians, about 12 kilometers from North Korea's coastline.

This resulted in the killing of two South Korean soldiers and two civilian contractors working on a military base. Pyongyang later expressed regret for the civilian deaths. An important detail in the factsheet reported in the Korean but apparently not the English press is that the volume of shelling conducted by the South reveals that this was no minor exercise.

The maritime dividing line between the two Koreas, which was unilaterally established by United Nations forces at the time of armistice in the Korean War in , and has been contested by the North ever since, hugs its western coastline. Echoing the views of Siegried Hecker, who recently toured North Korea's nuclear facilities see "Stanford University Professor's Report on the Implications of North Korea's Uranium Enrichment Program" at our website's What's Hot for the week of November 21, link , and others who advocate peaceful diplomacy to end the potentially nuclear armed standoff on the Korean Peninsula in the short run, a prelude to achieving a permanent peace in Northeast Asia in the long-run, the Campaign's factsheet makes this statement:.

In this spirit, China, joined several times by North Korea, has for months been calling for a resumption of Six-Party negotiations among the two Koreas, Japan, Russia, the U. More recently, China has asked all the parties to convene immediately to hold urgent discussions on how to defuse the dangerous military situation prevailing since November Instead, the three will meet next week in Washington to coordinate policy not only toward North Korea but also toward pressuring China to chastise and use sanctions to economically punish the North.

Meanwhile, South Korea has announced plans to again hold live-fire military exercises, possibly next week, this time in 29 locations, including on or near Yeonpyeong and other islands held by the South near the NLL. South Korea's new defense minister promises air strikes against the North if it responds by firing on the forces participating in this potentially far more provocative exercise. This latest exercise would come immediately after a large-scale naval exercise between the U.

Since the events of November 23, Japan itself remains on high military alert. In light of the massive military exercises already conducted and the planned exercise scheduled for next week close to North Korean territory and in waters long claimed by Pyongyang, as well as the rejection of China's invitation to hold a diplomatic roundtable, next week's trilateral meeting in Washington inevitably assumes something of the character of a war council.

It was slated to take place over a period of nine days. South Korean artillery units located in the West Sea Islands, just seven miles from the North Korean coast, engaged in firing exercises on November 23, , for four hours. The South Korean military has stated that its live-fire drills began that day at North Korea regarded these firing drills as part of the larger Hoguk military exercises and issued repeated warnings to South Korea, demanding a halt to the war games and warning that it would retaliate if South Korean troops fired live artillery shells into its territorial waters.

North Korean reports stated that at approximately 1 p. South Korea's artillery firing continued until 2: North Korean artillery units responded by firing on a South Korean artillery base on Yeonpyeong Island. The South Korean Marines responded by firing back at North Korean bases on the coast across from the island. On Yeonpyeong Island, a site with South Korean military bases and a fishing community of 1, residents, North Korean artillery killed two South Korean marines and two civilian military contractors who were building new barracks on a military installation.

The attack left eighteen others injured. North Korea did not disclose its casualties, but one South Korean report indicates that one North Korean soldier was killed and two others were seriously wounded. President Obama dispatched the nuclear-powered aircraft carrier, the USS George Washington carrying 75 warplanes and a crew of over and other warships to conduct additional joint war exercises with the South Korean military beginning November 28th.

Amid the recent hostilities, modest mitigating gestures have emerged, though compromised by a confrontational war footing in the region. Only a temporary armistice suspended the military hostilities in , but peace treaty talks in Geneva broke down in Millions of Koreans remain separated from their family members due to the continued state of war and division in Korea. According to Leon Sigal, former editorial board member of the New York Times, "Those waters have been troubled ever since In June , one such skirmish led to the sinking of a North Korean vessel, killing "at least 17 and as many as 80 North Korean sailors.

Both pledged to negotiate a joint fishing area and agreed to a proposal to create a "peace and cooperation zone" in the West Sea, which was aimed at transforming the heavily militarized waters into a maritime region for economic cooperation. In response, North Korea renounced all diplomatic and military agreements with South Korea. The North returned fire and the South opened up, severely damaging the North Korean vessel and causing an unknown number of casualties.

Forty-six South Korean sailors died in the sinking. This interpretation has been accepted, with few exceptions, as incontrovertible fact by most mainstream media outlets. They have uncovered tampered evidence and a long list of factual inconsistencies. In contrast, scientists have modeled that a torpedo explosion would have sent crew members "flying like bullets" into the surrounding equipment, fracturing bones and likely resulting in fatalities from the explosion's concussive force.

Yet, autopsies revealed that all of the Cheonan victims died of drowning, not from the injuries they sustained. As Lee and Suh explain, "the ship's and crew's condition is not consistent with the damage expected of an outside explosion" caused by a torpedo, which would have produced a tremendous shock wave Asia-Pacific Journal, July12, Caprio Rikkyo University, Tokyo wrote: The exceptionally aggressive attitude taken by the present ROK regime increases the potential for more tragic incidents-planned or accidental-between the two Koreas, which may also pull in allies on both sides.

The US-ROK refusal to participate in negotiations until Pyongyang apologizes for an incident it insists it did not commit, and their decision to pressure the DPRK by holding massive new joint war exercises and by inflicting still more economic sanctions, demonstrates macho but also greatly increases the possibility of more Cheonan-like incidents, and in the gravest scenario a second Korean War. Meanwhile, South Korea, Japan, and the US have refused to return to negotiations with North Korea, as the North Korean leadership has recently strengthened ties with counterparts in China.

Since , the US has maintained a continuous military presence in South Korea, with an estimated 28, US troops currently stationed in South Korea. Sixty-five years later, the US still retains wartime operational control over South Korean forces, and the US and South Korean militaries routinely conduct joint war-simulation exercises near the DMZ and within contested waters off the Korean peninsula. These combined drills are an overt show of force, displaying the sophistication of US and South Korean military technology.

North Korea condemns the military exercises as provocative because it regards these maneuvers as a possible smokescreen for a real attack. These recurring tragic incidents off Korea's west coast have resulted from the unending state of war and continued national division on the Korean peninsula. They underscore the frailty of the Armistice Agreement of and confirm the urgent need to replace that temporary truce with a permanent peace treaty. As tensions continue to mount, it is critical that we urge President Barack Obama, Nobel Peace Laureate, to stop the US-ROK joint military exercises and to recognize that such war-simulation maneuvers inevitably increase the risk of an uncontrollable and unacceptable escalation that would threaten millions of lives.

The US must return to negotiations to reach a peace agreement that would finally end the Korean War. South Korea must return to a peace process with North Korea in order to reduce the heightened volatility on the Korean peninsula that has endangered the entire region. Direct negotiations, as a first step toward a peace treaty or agreement, are the only viable option in a heavily militarized region characterized by recurring naval conflicts, disputed borders and unresolved grievances.

The stakes for peace in Korea are enormous, and the time for a genuine peace process is now. What Kim wants is sustained, serious talks with the US, leading to a comprehensive peace treaty…. Our problem is that every time we elect a new president, we seem to feel that we have to start from scratch with North Korea. One item should be at the top of the agenda, however, in order to remove all unnecessary obstacles to progress, that is the establishment of a peace treaty to replace the truce that has been in place since One of the things that have bedeviled all talks until now is the unresolved status of the Korean War.

Nan Kim is assistant professor of history at the University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee and a specialist on modern Korean war memory. He wrote this introduction for the Asia-Pacific Journal. This article is part of a series commemorating the sixtieth anniversary of the Korean War. The Korean War — 60 Years On. The Origins and Mindset of Postwar U. Uncovering the Hidden Korean War. Museums and the Contested Memory of the Korean War. The Manufacturing of a Crisis. The United States Department of Defense is planning a massive military build-up on Guahan Guam that threatens to change the entire make-up of the island.

Guahan, nestled at the southern-most tip of the Marianas Archipelago in the Micronesian region of Oceania, is a mere square miles in area, barely bigger than a dot in most world maps. The island is similarly small in the consciousness of most American and Japanese taxpayers, who will be funding the military expansion.

Guahan, however, has a large and rich history. While the island and her people remained in relative isolation from the Western world for over 3, years from the earliest indications of settlement, its strategic location as a crossroad between East and West has resulted in colonization by successive maritime powers over the last six centuries. The Spanish maintained control until they were defeated in the Spanish-American War in The United States then took Guahan as a spoil of war and made the island a U. Guahan was governed much like a naval ship with a naval governor at the helm.

In , the United States did not defend the island when Japan invaded on December 8. Guahan surrendered two days later and was occupied by the Japanese Imperial Army from The United States returned and used the island to win the war with Japan. As an unincorporated territory, island residents do not have the rights of full U. Further, Guahan is limited in its ability to develop a viable economy as prescribed in specific federal-territorial policies like the Jones Act, which requires that all goods be carried to Guahan exclusively in U.

In fact, the U. The United States has consistently pointed to the U. It is a proxy constitution that creates the illusion of local control over governance but grants the U. Department of Interior and the U. Congress ultimate power over the island. The Act authorizes the Federal Government to use powers such as eminent domain, which continue to be considered illegal in international law. Then when Guahan was surrendered to Japan in , the CHamorus suffered forced labor, massacres and other wartime atrocities. The United States completely destroyed the island with bombs in retaking it in , leaving many CHamorus without their homes or land to return to.

Manyof these families never got their land back as the United States continues to occupy nearly one-third of the island. Also, as a result of U. Despite this history, traditional CHamoru values are still practiced today. CHamoru society has always been matriarchal, and women are revered both for their ability to bear children and their nurturing influence as mothers.

CHamoru women continue to hold power in society and keep the family strong, ensuring that the beliefs of their people are passed on to future generations. Thus, CHamorus have always engaged in ancestral veneration.

CHamorus help each other during significant life events like birth, marriage, or death with offerings of money, food, material goods, and other support. CHamorus are sustained by these values, and their very existence is a testament to their resilience. However, the planned U. This period evidenced a multitude of Spanish-CHamoru wars, wherein CHamorus typically led by their chiefs resisted the Spanish and the ideology they preached.

The Spaniards would have done better to remain in their own country. We have no need of their help to live happily. Satisfied with what our islands furnish us, we desire nothing. The knowledge, which they have given us has only increased our needs and stimulated our desires. They find it evil that we do not dress. If that were necessary, nature would have provided us with clothes.

They treat us as gross people and regard us as barbarians. But do we have to believe them? Under the excuse of instructing us, they are corrupting us. They take away from us the primitive simplicity in which we live. They dare to take away our liberty, which should be dearer to us than life itself. They try to persuade us that we will be happier, and some of us had been blinded into believing their words. But can we have such sentiments if we reflect that we have been covered with misery and illness ever since those foreigners have come to disturb our peace?

The Spaniards reproach us because of our poverty, ignorance and lack of industry. But if we are poor, as they tell us, then what do they search for? For what purpose do they teach us except to make us adopt their customs, to subject us to their laws, and to remove the precious liberty left to us by our ancestors? In a word, they try to make us unhappy in the hope of an ephemeral happiness, which can be enjoyed only after death…. Let us not lose courage in the presence of our misfortunes.

They are only a handful.

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