The Indo-Aryan word Sindhu means "river", "ocean". The rebellion was put down and all the collaborators executed. Pashaura Singh, , pp. Although al-Biruni's original Arabic text only uses a term equivalent to the religion of the people of India, his description of Hindu religion is in fact remarkably similar to those of nineteenth-century European orientalists. For his part Vidyapati, in his Apabhransha text Kirtilata, makes use of the phrase 'Hindu and Turk dharmas' in a clearly religious sense and highlights the local conflicts between the two communities. In the early sixteenth century texts attributed to Kabir, the references to 'Hindus' and to 'Turks' or 'Muslims' musalamans in a clearly religious context are numerous and unambiguous.
It was formed by adding the English suffix -ism, of Greek origin, to the word Hindu , of Persian origin; it was about the same time that the word Hindu , without the suffix -ism, came to be used mainly as a religious term. The name Hindu was first a geographical name, not a religious one, and it originated in the languages of Iran, not of India. They referred to the non-Muslim majority, together with their culture, as 'Hindu'. Since the people called Hindu differed from Muslims most notably in religion, the word came to have religious implications, and to denote a group of people who were identifiable by their Hindu religion.
However, it is a religious term that the word Hindu is now used in English, and Hinduism is the name of a religion, although, as we have seen, we should beware of any false impression of uniformity that this might give us. Essays on Religion in History. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Lipner , Hindus: Hindu is used today for an adherent of Hinduism, the common religion of India.
Hindoo is listed in dictionaries as a variant spelling, but it is one that may lend itself to derogatory use. Nevertheless, there is a sort of visual onomatopoeia; a Hindu has dignity, while a Hindoo seems slightly ridiculous. Marty 1 July Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies, and Militance. University of Chicago Press. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu.
A Very Short Introduction. The Continuum companion to Hindu studies. This classic work helped to establish the major classification systems as we know them today. A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. This work gives an overview of many different subsets of the three main religious groups in India. Religious rights Article Comparative Perspectives on Muslim and Sikh Identities. Freedom of Religion and Belief: Basic Shiksha Parishad, Allahabad, U.
A Source-Book of Modern Hinduism (Paperback, Revised)
David Gilmartin, Bruce B. Hindu-Muslim identities in pre-colonial India". Comparative Studies in Society and History. The Colonial Construction of Hinduism Editors: Pilgrimage in the Hindu Tradition: The Hindu Tantric World: From the Ganges to Graceland; an Encyclopedia. Hindu Places of Pilgrimage in India: A Study in Cultural Geography.
University of California Press. At the Crossroads of Conflict. Even a pious saint had gathered together fifteen slaves. Regrettably, all had to be slaughtered before the attack on Delhi for fear that they might rebel. But after the occupation of Delhi the inhabitants were brought out and distributed as slaves among Timur's nobles, the captives including several thousand artisans and professional people. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century.
A History of India. It is worth noting that, in contrast to the traditional claim of hundreds of Hindu temples having been destroyed by Aurangzeb, a recent study suggests a modest figure of just fifteen destructions.
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Avari writes, "Aurangzeb's religious policy caused friction between him and the ninth Sikh guru, Tegh Bahadur. In both Punjab and Kashmir the Sikh leader was roused to action by Aurangzeb's excessively zealous Islamic policies. Seized and taken to Delhi, he was called upon by Aurangzeb to embrace Islam and, on refusal, was tortured for five days and then beheaded in November Two of the ten Sikh gurus thus died as martyrs at the hands of the Mughals.
The Rise of Devotionalism and the Politics of Genealogy. Tipu Sultan's Search for Legitimacy: Islam and Kingship in a Hindu Domain. Culture and Customs of South Africa. The Invention of Religion: Rethinking Belief in Politics and History. Religious Freedom in the World. Clashing Civilizations or Regulated Religious Economies?
Explicit use of et al. Purifying the Land of the Pure: A History of Pakistan's Religious Minorities. Retrieved 31 March Hindu groups such as Hare Krishna and followers of the Indian spiritual leader Sai Baba are present in small numbers. Some indigenous religious groups, including the "Naurus" on Seram Island in Maluku Province, incorporate Hindu and animist beliefs, and many have also adopted some Protestant teachings.
Retrieved 15 May Office of National Statistics 11 December Retrieved September 7, Retrieved 21 April Census Dictionary, cat. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 14 July The named reference Census — Religion was invoked but never defined see the help page. Archived from the original PDF on 19 October Retrieved 2 August Bureau of Statistics — Guyana.
Archived from the original on 30 May Archived from the original on 14 February Retrieved 2 October Archived from the original on 28 February Retrieved 14 February Archived from the original on 19 August Islamic Civilization in South Asia: The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. October , "Who Invented Hinduism? Essays on Religion in History , Yoda Press, pp. The term Hindutva equates religious and national identity: They are flesh of our flesh and blood of our blood' Oxford University Press, pp. Rigveda Yajurveda Samaveda Atharvaveda. Samhita Brahmana Aranyaka Upanishad.
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Ayurveda Dhanurveda Natya Shastra Sthapatyaveda. Major religious groups and religious denominations. Retrieved from " https: Hindus Religious identity Ethnoreligious groups. Pages with reference errors Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint: Pages with broken reference names Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Use Indian English from July All Wikipedia articles written in Indian English Use dmy dates from September Articles with short description Articles with hAudio microformats CS1 maint: Views Read View source View history.
In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote. Yajna and Hindu wedding. A home shrine with offerings at a regional Vishu festival left ; a priest in a temple right. Tirtha Hinduism , Tirtha locations , and Yatra. Ahimsa , Diet in Hinduism , Sattvic diet , and Mitahara. Hindu temple , Murti , and Hindu iconography. Illustration of Hindu temples in Asia.
Madrasian Culture Soanian Culture. Bronze Age — BC. Iron Age — BC. Late medieval period — Early modern period — Periods of Sri Lanka. Indo-Aryans and Indo-Aryan migration. Islam in India and Bhakti movement. For a discussion on the topic, see: The "oldest living major religion" in the world Klostermaier , p. They practice the world's oldest religion Over many centuries a fusion of Aryan and Dravidian occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis.
Sjoberg , p. Gavin Flood states: Eventually 'Hindu' became virtually equivalent to an 'Indian' who was not a Muslim, Sikh, Jain or Christian, thereby encompassing a range of religious beliefs and practices. The '-ism' was added to Hindu in around to denote the culture and religion of the high-caste Brahmans in contrast to other religions, and the term was soon appropriated by Indians themselves in the context of building a national identity opposed to colonialism, though the term 'Hindu' was used in Sanskrit and Bengali hagiographic texts in contrast to 'Yavana' or Muslim as early as the sixteenth century".
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Flood , p. In this text, 'Isami uses the word 'hindi' to mean Indian in the ethno-geographical sense and the word 'hindu' to mean 'Hindu' in the sense of a follower of the Hindu religion".
Garg , p. Balagangadhara , The Heathen in his Blindness These movements, particularly active in British and French colonies outside India, such as in Africa and the Caribbean, interpreted Hinduism to be a monotheistic religion and attempted to demonstrate that it to be similar to Christianity and Islam. Their views were opposed by other Hindus such as the Sanatan Dharma Sabha of Their accounts of Hinduism were forged in physically, politically and spiritually hostile surroundings [impoverished, famine prone Bengal — now West Bengal and Bangladesh].
Plagued with anxieties and fears about their own health, regularly reminded of colleagues who had lost their lives or reason, uncertain of their own social location, and preaching to crowds whose reactions ranged from indifference to amusement to hostility, missionaries found expression for their darker misgivings in their production of what is surely part of their speckled legacy: Klaus Witz [] states that Hindu Bhakti movement ideas in the medieval era grew on the foundation of Upanishadic knowledge and Vedanta philosophies.
John Henderson [] states that "Hindus, both in medieval and in modern times, have been particularly drawn to those canonical texts and philosophical schools such as the Bhagavad Gita and Vedanta, which seem to synthesize or reconcile most successfully diverse philosophical teachings and sectarian points of view. Thus, this widely recognized attribute of Indian culture may be traced to the exegetical orientation of medieval Hindu commentarial traditions, especially Vedanta. Patrick Olivelle [] and others [] [] [] state that the central ideas of the Upanishads in the Vedic corpus are at the spiritual core of Hindus.
Monier-Williams , p. Three gods, Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, and other deities are considered manifestations of and are worshipped as incarnations of Brahman. The members of various Hindu sects worship a dizzying number of specific deities and follow innumerable rituals in honor of specific gods. Because this is Hinduism, however, its practitioners see the profusion of forms and practices as expressions of the same unchanging reality. The panoply of deities are understood by believers as symbols for a single transcendent reality.
The devas are powerful spiritual beings, somewhat like angels in the West, who have certain functions in the cosmos and live immensely long lives. Certain devas, such as Ganesha, are regularly worshiped by the Hindu faithful. Note that, while Hindus believe in many devas, many are monotheistic to the extent that they will recognise only one Supreme Being, a God or Goddess who is the source and ruler of the devas. These are collected from the pyre in a rite-of-passage called asthi sanchayana , then dispersed during asthi visarjana. This signifies redemption of the dead in waters considered to be sacred and a closure for the living.
Tirtha locations offer these services. Caste-based discrimination fundamentally contradicts the essential teaching of Hindu sacred texts that divinity is inherent in all beings. It is the formative period for the Upanishads and Brahmanism [subnote 7] Jainism and Buddhism. For Smart, the "classical period" lasts from to CE, and coincides with the flowering of "classical Hinduism" and the flowering and deterioration of Mahayana-buddhism in India.
According to Muesse, some of the fundamental concepts of Hinduism, namely karma, reincarnation and "personal enlightenment and transformation", which did not exist in the Vedic religion, developed in this time. For nearly two millennia they and their culture gradually penetrated India, moving east and south from their original seat in the Punjab. They mixed with people who spoke Munda or Dravidian languages, who have left no traces of their culture beyond some archaeological remains; we know as little about them as we would about the Indo-Aryans if they had left no texts.
Remarkable cave paintings have been preserved from Mesolithic sites dating from c. The worship of certain plants and animals as sacred, for instance, could very likely have very great antiquity. The worship of goddesses, too, a part of Hinduism today, may be a feature that originated in the Neolithic. Witzel mentions a range between and BCE. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history [ These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: First, it is apparent in the suggestion that the Advaita Vedanta philosophy of Sankara c.
Second, in an Indian context, neo-Vedanta philosophy subsumes Buddhist philosophies in terms of its own Vedantic ideology. The Buddha becomes a member of the Vedanta tradition, merely attempting to reform it from within. Finally, at a global level, neo-Vedanta colonises the religious traditions of the world by arguing for the centrality of a non-dualistic position as the philosophia perennis underlying all cultural differences. It was the areas which had been least exposed to the Brahmanical fold which showed the largest numbers of Muslims.
Forced conversion did happen, though. According to Malik , p. Lorenzen , pp. Nicholson , p. The complexities of Asian nationalism are to be seen and understood in the context of colonialism, modernization and nation-building. Suzuki , who conjuncted Zen to Japanese nationalism and militarism , in defense against both western hegemony and the pressure on Japanese Zen during the Meiji Restoration to conform to Shinbutsu Bunri. Yet, Rinehart emphasises that it is "clear that there isn't a neat line of causation that leads from the philosophies of Rammohan Roy, Vivekananda and Radhakrishnan to the agenda of [ He [Hutton] considers modern Hinduism to be the result of an amalgam between pre-Aryan Indian beliefs of Mediterranean inspiration and the religion of the Rigveda.
Ghurye , p. An Anthropological Perspective , page 68, as quoted by Sjoberg, calls Hinduism a "synthesis" in which the Dravidian elements prevail: In this process the rude, barbaric Aryan tribes were gradually civilised and eventually merged with the autochthonous Dravidians. Although elements of their domestic cult and ritualism were jealously preserved by Brahman priests, the body of their culture survived only in fragmentary tales and allegories embedded in vast, syncretistic compendia.
On the whole, the Aryan contribution to Indian culture is insignificant. The essential pattern of Indian culture was already established in the third millennium B. The Case of Hindu Indian Americans". Johns Hopkins University Press. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. Deel , 1ste Afl.: Journal of Cultural Geography. This refers to the idea that its origins lie beyond human history". A Survey of Hinduism 3rd ed. State University of New York Press.
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Journal of the American Oriental Society. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu. A Very Short Introduction. Hinduism in the Modern World. Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. The Encyclopedia of Caribbean Religions: A - L; Volume 2: University of Illinois Press.
Sharma; Usha Sharma Cultural and Religious Heritage of India: A Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism. The Journal of the Oriental Society of Australia. Constructions and Deconstructions of Hinduism". International Journal of Hindu Studies. Retrieved 19 February It is first recorded in , in the generic sense of "polytheism of India".
Pennington , Was Hinduism Invented?: Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism". Archived from the original on 17 March Retrieved 5 July An Introduction to Comparative Religions. An Introduction to Big History. University of California Press. From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature. Williams and Norgate, London. Nature and Identity in Cross-Cultural Perspective. The Experience of Hinduism: Essays on Religion in Maharashtra. An Introduction to Interfaith Spiritual Guidance.
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The perfectibility of human nature in eastern and western thought. For the Mimamsa the ultimate reality is nothing other than the eternal words of the Vedas. They did not accept the existence of a single supreme creator god, who might have composed the Veda. According to the Mimamsa, gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. The power of the gods, then, is nothing other than the power of the mantras that name them.
They also thought there was no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there was no need for an author to compose the Veda or an independent God to validate the Vedic rituals. Guy Beck , Alternative Krishnas: The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant.
Stone; James Porter; Timothy Rice The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: The Religions of India: Archived 1 March at the Wayback Machine. Coburn, Scripture" in India: Lochtefeld , The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: The Library of Congress. Retrieved 19 April Brian Smith , Ritual, Knowledge, and Being: Elements of Hindu Devotion. Denise Cush; et al. An Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism. Themes and Issues in Hinduism. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: The Rosen Publishing Group.
Gale Encyclopedia of Religion. Postclassical and Modern Editors: The brothers, in turn, give their sisters a token gift and promise protection. Lochtefeld , pp. Jacobsen , pp. Anthropological Dimensions of Pilgrimage. Pilgrims in Hindu Holy Land: Sacred Shrines of the Indian Himalayas. Eck , pp. The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective.
The earliest promotional works aimed at tourists from that era were called mahatmyas [in Puranas]. Klostermaier , p. Eck , p. The Kumbh Mela in Allahabad, — Goddess Durga and Sacred Female Power. The Stations of Life". The Illustrated World's Religions. Caste, Class and Quotas in India". George Allen and Unwin Ltd. The Theosophical Publishing House, p. The remaining 58 percent of households are less strict vegetarians or non-vegetarians. Archived from the original on 26 June Retrieved 28 December Archived copy as title link CS1 maint: Cambridge University Press, Oxtoby and Alan F.
World Religions in Practice: In this province, like nearly all Bengalis, they celebrate Durga Puja, but their ceremonies are bloodless". Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History. Archives of Asian Art.
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Woodard 18 August Vedic and Roman Cult. Empires of the Silk Road: Kiss of the Yogini. University of Chicago Press. Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy. Johnston; Whitney Bauman One Planet, Many Possibilities. The Golden Age of India. Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia.
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The [oldest] Upanishads in particular were part of the Vedic corpus [ This process was then carried further and brought to completion in the Upanishads. But in the Upanishads inner awareness, aided by major intellectual breakthroughs, arrived at a language in which Highest Goal could be dealt with directly, independent of ritual and sacred lore". Exploring Alterity in a Globalized World. The new set of ideas contained the Asian American Religious Cultures. Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.
Plott et al , Global History of Philosophy: As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism". There are four sects among the followers of Buddha: Madhyamicas who maintain all is void; 2. Yogacharas, who assert except sensation and intelligence all else is void; 3. Sautranticas, who affirm actual existence of external objects no less than of internal sensations; 4. Vaibhashikas, who agree with later Sautranticas except that they contend for immediate apprehension of exterior objects through images or forms represented to the intellect.
Rebirth and the Nature of the Soul. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. A History of Indian Medical Literature. Quellenstudien zur Askese im Hinduismus in German. Sanskrit Play Production in Ancient India. Handbook of Oriental Studies. Societies, Networks, and Transitions: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series, 23, pages 41— An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms. Genesis and Development of Tantrism, edited by Shingo Einoo.
Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series, 23, pp. The earliest promotional works aimed at tourists from that era were called mahatmyas. The many colors of Hinduism: Shankara and Indian Philosophy.
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From Early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism: Gaudapada, Bhartrhari, and Abhinavagupta. The Theology of Ramanuja: In the thirteenth century Delhi developed into a considerable slave market. These measures notwithstanding, the Mughals actively participated in slave trade with Central Asia, deporting rebels and subjects who had defaulted on revenue payments, following precedents inherited from Delhi Sultanate".
It is worth noting that, in contrast to the traditional claim of hundreds of Hindu temples having been destroyed by Aurangzeb, a recent study suggests a modest figure of just fifteen destructions. Avari writes, "Aurangzeb's religious policy caused friction between him and the ninth Sikh guru, Tegh Bahadur. In both Punjab and Kashmir the Sikh leader was roused to action by Aurangzeb's excessively zealous Islamic policies. Seized and taken to Delhi, he was called upon by Aurangzeb to embrace Islam and, on refusal, was tortured for five days and then beheaded in November Two of the ten Sikh gurus thus died as martyrs at the hands of the Mughals.
The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Archived from the original PDF on 16 October Retrieved 1 November Truman Simanjuntak et al. Dialogues in South Asian Languages Editor: Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A history of Muslim power and presence in the Indian subcontinent. Hindu Places of Pilgrimage in India: A Study in Cultural Geography. Motilal Banarsidass Cousins, L. Eliot, Sir Charles , Hinduism and Buddhism: An Historical Sketch , I Reprint ed. Routledge Gomez, Luis O. A Symposium on the Great Scriptures of the World" 2nd ed. Pilgrimage in the Hindu Tradition: Survey of Hinduism, A: Hinduism in Its Continuity and Diversity, by J.
The Classical Law of India.
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An Introduction , I. Tauris Lorenzen, David N. Michaels, Axel , Hinduism. Past and present , Princeton, New Jersey: Hinduism Muesse, Mark W. Part Two , Delhi: Democracy, Religious Violence, and India's Future. Retrieved 25 May A Contemporary Perspective , Rowman Altamira, pp. Uitgeverij Kok Smelser, Neil J. The early history of India 3rd ed. An Introduction - Part 1 , Ahmedabad: