In his posthumously published Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion , Part 3 , Hegel is shown as being particularly interested with the demonstrations of God's existence and the ontological proof. This means that Jesus as the Son of God is posited by God over against himself as other.
Hegel sees both a relational unity and a metaphysical unity between Jesus and God the Father. To Hegel, Jesus is both divine and human. Hegel further attests that God as Jesus not only died, but "[ God, that is to say, maintains himself in the process, and the latter is only the death of death. God rises again to life, and thus things are reversed". The philosopher Walter Kaufmann has argued that there was great stress on the sharp criticisms of traditional Christianity appearing in Hegel's so-called early theological writings.
Kaufmann admits that Hegel treated many distinctively Christian themes and "sometimes could not resist equating" his conception of spirit Geist "with God, instead of saying clearly: So he, too, sometimes spoke of God and, more often, of the divine; and because he occasionally took pleasure in insisting that he was really closer to this or that Christian tradition than some of the theologians of his time, he has sometimes been understood to have been a Christian.
According to Hegel himself, his philosophy was consistent with Christianity. Verlag von Duncker und Humblot, Hegel seemed to have an ambivalent relationship with magic , myth and Paganism.
He formulates an early philosophical example of a disenchantment narrative, arguing that Judaism was responsible both for realizing the existence of Geist and, by extension, for separating nature from ideas of spiritual and magical forces and challenging polytheism. Hegel published four works during his lifetime: During the last ten years of his life, Hegel did not publish another book, but thoroughly revised the Encyclopedia second edition, ; third, He also published some articles early in his career and during his Berlin period.
A number of other works on the philosophy of history , religion , aesthetics and the history of philosophy were compiled from the lecture notes of his students and published posthumously. There are views of Hegel's thought as a representation of the summit of early 19th-century Germany's movement of philosophical idealism.
It would come to have a profound impact on many future philosophical schools, including schools that opposed Hegel's specific dialectical idealism , such as existentialism , the historical materialism of Marx, historism and British Idealism.
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Hegel's influence was immense both within philosophy and in the other sciences. The more recent movement of communitarianism has a strong Hegelian influence. Some of Hegel's writing was intended for those with advanced knowledge of philosophy, although his Encyclopedia was intended as a textbook in a university course. Nevertheless, Hegel assumes that his readers are well-versed in Western philosophy. Those without this background would be well-advised to begin with one of the many general introductions to his thought. As is always the case, difficulties are magnified for those reading him in translation.
In fact, Hegel himself argues in his Science of Logic that the German language was particularly conducive to philosophical thought. According to Walter Kaufmann, the basic idea of Hegel's works, especially the Phenomenology of Spirit , is that a philosopher should not "confine him or herself to views that have been held but penetrate these to the human reality they reflect". In other words, it is not enough to consider propositions, or even the content of consciousness; "it is worthwhile to ask in every instance what kind of spirit would entertain such propositions, hold such views, and have such a consciousness.
Every outlook in other words, is to be studied not merely as an academic possibility but as an existential reality".
Some historians have spoken of Hegel's influence as represented by two opposing camps. The Left Hegelians , also known as the Young Hegelians, interpreted Hegel in a revolutionary sense, leading to an advocation of atheism in religion and liberal democracy in politics. In more recent studies, this paradigm has been questioned.
Critiques of Hegel offered from the Left Hegelians radically diverted Hegel's thinking into new directions and eventually came to form a disproportionately large part of the literature on and about Hegel. The Left Hegelians also influenced Marxism, which inspired global movements, encompassing the Russian Revolution , the Chinese Revolution and myriad revolutionary practices up until the present moment.
According to Benedetto Croce , the Italian Fascist Giovanni Gentile "holds the honor of having been the most rigorous neo-Hegelian in the entire history of Western philosophy and the dishonor of having been the official philosopher of Fascism in Italy".
In previous modern accounts of Hegelianism to undergraduate classes, for example , especially those formed prior to the Hegel renaissance, Hegel's dialectic was most often characterized as a three-step process, " thesis, antithesis, synthesis "; namely, that a "thesis" e. However, Hegel used this classification only once and he attributed the terminology to Kant. The terminology was largely developed earlier by Fichte. The "thesis—antithesis—synthesis" approach gives the sense that things or ideas are contradicted or opposed by things that come from outside them.
To the contrary, the fundamental notion of Hegel's dialectic is that things or ideas have internal contradictions. From Hegel's point of view, analysis or comprehension of a thing or idea reveals that underneath its apparently simple identity or unity is an underlying inner contradiction. This contradiction leads to the dissolution of the thing or idea in the simple form in which it presented itself and to a higher-level, more complex thing or idea that more adequately incorporates the contradiction. The triadic form that appears in many places in Hegel e.
For Hegel, reason is but "speculative", not "dialectical". According to their argument, although Hegel refers to "the two elemental considerations: Furthermore, in Hegel's language the "dialectical" aspect or "moment" of thought and reality, by which things or thoughts turn into their opposites or have their inner contradictions brought to the surface, what he called Aufhebung , is only preliminary to the "speculative" and not "synthesizing" aspect or "moment", which grasps the unity of these opposites or contradiction.
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It is widely admitted today that the old-fashioned description of Hegel's philosophy in terms of thesis—antithesis—synthesis is inaccurate. Nevertheless, such is the persistence of this misnomer that the model and terminology survive in a number of scholarly works. In the last half of the 20th century, Hegel's philosophy underwent a major renaissance. This was due to a the rediscovery and re-evaluation of Hegel as a possible philosophical progenitor of Marxism by philosophically oriented Marxists; b a resurgence of the historical perspective that Hegel brought to everything; and c an increasing recognition of the importance of his dialectical method.
In Reason and Revolution , Herbert Marcuse made the case for Hegel as a revolutionary and criticized Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse 's thesis that Hegel was a totalitarian. Beginning in the s, Anglo-American Hegel scholarship has attempted to challenge the traditional interpretation of Hegel as offering a metaphysical system: Pelczynski and Shlomo Avineri. This view, sometimes referred to as the "non-metaphysical option", has had a decided influence on many major English language studies of Hegel in the past forty years. Late 20th-century literature in Western Theology that is friendly to Hegel includes works by such writers as Walter Kaufmann , Dale M.
Schlitt , Theodore Geraets , Philip M. Two prominent American philosophers, John McDowell and Robert Brandom sometimes referred to as the " Pittsburgh Hegelians" , have produced philosophical works exhibiting a marked Hegelian influence. Beginning in the s after the fall of the Soviet Union, a fresh reading of Hegel took place in the West.
Marx plays little-to-no role in these new readings. Criticism of Hegel has been widespread in the 19th and the 20th centuries. Moore , Eric Voegelin and A. Ayer have challenged Hegelian philosophy from a variety of perspectives. Among the first to take a critical view of Hegel's system was the 19th-century German group known as the Young Hegelians , which included Feuerbach, Marx, Engels and their followers. In particular, Russell considered "almost all" of Hegel's doctrines to be false. Hegel's contemporary Schopenhauer was particularly critical and wrote of Hegel's philosophy as "a pseudo-philosophy paralyzing all mental powers, stifling all real thinking".
Kierkegaard criticized Hegel's "absolute knowledge" unity. Karl Popper wrote that "there is so much philosophical writing especially in the Hegelian school which may justly be criticized as meaningless verbiage". Popper further proposed that Hegel's philosophy served not only as an inspiration for communist and fascist totalitarian governments of the 20th century, whose dialectics allow for any belief to be construed as rational simply if it could be said to exist.
Kaufmann and Shlomo Avineri have criticized Popper's theories about Hegel. Voegelin argued that Hegel should be understood not as a philosopher, but as a "sorcerer", i. The secondary literature on Hegel is vast. The following references provide only a small selection of introductory English-language texts.
For a more complete listing, see the external links section or the library resources box to the right. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For other uses, see Hegel disambiguation. Portrait by Jakob Schlesinger , Berlin , Kingdom of Prussia. Continental philosophy German idealism Objective idealism Absolute idealism Hegelianism Historicism [2] Naturphilosophie Epistemic coherentism [3] Conceptualism [4] Empirical realism [5] Coherence theory of truth [6].
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. August Learn how and when to remove this template message. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel bibliography. Luther, Hegel's Critique of Modernity: Sarlemijn, Hegel's Dialectic , Springer, , p. In short, he adopts a view very similar to Kant's empirical realism. An Illustrated Biography , Pegasus, , p. Luft, Hegel's Shorter Logic: An Introduction and Commentary , Gegensatz Press, , p.
Hegel, Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts , Vorrede: II, Meiner, [], pp. The Limits of Doubt: The Moral and Political Implications of Skepticism. After the Fall of Communism. University of Wales Press. Journal of the History of Economic Thought.
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Hegelian reflections in twentieth-century France. The Descent of Ideas: The History of Intellectual History. Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. It does not occur anywhere in The Science of Logic though he comes close in a remark on p.
Greraets, Suchting and Harris note in the introduction to their translation of this later text that the term is more strongly associated with English movement in that later part of the 19th century Hackett: In Breazeale, Daniel; Fichte, Johann Jahrhundert , Harper, A Biography , p. The Cambridge Companion to Hegel. A Search for Unity in Diversity: Archived from the original PDF on The letter was not published in Hegel's time, but the expression was attributed to Hegel anecdotally, appearing in print from L. Noack, Schelling und die Philosophie der Romantik , , p.
It is used without attribution by Meyer Kayserling in his Sephardim The phrase become widely associated with Hegel later in the 19th century, e. October , p. Hegel, letter of 13 October to F. Hegel aus heutiger Sicht , Wilhelm Fink Verlag , p. A History , , p. Miller [Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Between Freedom and Necessity: An Essay on the Place of Value. An Introduction to Hegel's Logic. A History of Philosophy: Continuum International Publishing Group. Krug", Kritisches Journal der Philosophie , I, no. Vickroy and Susan E. Blow - who were both minor associates of the St. The Journal of Speculative Philosophy in print from was the official journal of the St.
Louis Philosophical Society - the organization which served as the hub of the St. Susan Elizabeth Blow June 7, - March 27, was an educator who in opened the first successful public kindergarten in the U. The Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity, and the Birth of the Human Sciences. University of Chicago Press. Kaufmann , Discovery of the Mind 1: Goethe, Kant and Hegel , p. Kaufmann , Hegel: A Reinterpretation , Anchor, p. A Reinterpretation , p. Columbia University Press, The Hegel Myths and Legends. Francis Fukuyama and the End of History.
Russell, History of Western Philosophy , chapter 22, paragraph 1, p. Selected writings , p. The Satisfaction of Self-Consciousness Cambridge: A History of Western Philosophy. Routledge, , Instead, I argue that we must understand Hegel as a Hermetic thinker, if we are to truly understand him at all. The Logic of Hegel's Logic: An Introduction to Hegel. Freedom, Truth and History. Blackwell Houlgate, Stephen, The Opening of Hegel's Logic: From Being to Infinity.
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Northwestern University Press, Inwood, Michael , Kaufmann, Walter , Doubleday reissued Notre Dame IN: University of Notre Dame Press, Lectures on the Phenomenology of Spirit , Basic Books, Losurdo, Domenico , Hegel and the Freedom of Moderns. State University of New York Press. This new feature displays references to sentence pairs from translated texts, which we have found for you on the Internet, directly within many of our PONS dictionary entries.
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