Native speakers of Pennsylvania German English 2. Nonfluent speakers using Pennsylvania German English only on special occasions and often exhibiting faulty grammar 3. Passive bilinguals understanding Pennsylvania German English but who are not able to speak. Monolinguals of Standard English 5. Exiles who were born in Pennsylvania German areas, but left due to reasons of spouse and occupation and who are neither able to understand nor to speak the dialect. They began to borrow foreign words, so-called loanwords into their own language. The process of borrowing to which linguists refer to as adlexification was easier to be brought about than to create new words according to word formation rules of the receiving language.
Such loanwords are e. However, these borrowed words often carry stigmatized meanings within social interactions. Thus, they use American English loanwords to describe negative phenomena which are more part of the English than of the Amish world, e. It is significant to note that not all American English loanwords are motivated by adlexification, but rather by relexification that may be complete or incomplete. Language economy is the keyword: The following words may serve as examples of an incomplete relexification, since, though American English loanwords were carried into Pennsylvania German English and were considered to be part of it, the loanwords only represent alternatives to their Pennsylvania German equivalents, but are not wholly accepted.
Contrasting this, the case of complete relexification is found in e. Here, the converging process is complete. Finally, the importation of loanwords into the Pennsylvania German dialect, characterized as lexical instability, is marked by two important aspects:.
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Register or log in. Our newsletter keeps you up to date with all new papers in your subjects. Request a new password via email. Table of Contents 1. Social Aspects of the Pennsylvania German society 3. Later and earlier borrowings 5. The rise-rise-fall pattern 7. Introduction The long persistence of Pennsylvania German English for nearly two centuries in an English-speaking territory which was settled by English, Scotch-Irish and Welsh as early as by Germans [1] , naturally brought about a certain contact between English and German language that influenced both, the generally spoken English and the specific dialect formation that languages borrowed from each other.
Geographical distribution of Pennsylvania speech areas Although Pennsylvania German English was and still is spoken in complete isolation from the mother country, it exists as a relatively homogeneous dialect spoken across an English-speaking country.
Social aspects of the Pennsylvania German society. Relexification It is significant to note that not all American English loanwords are motivated by adlexification, but rather by relexification that may be complete or incomplete. Finally, the importation of loanwords into the Pennsylvania German dialect, characterized as lexical instability, is marked by two important aspects: Ralph Wood Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, The pollutant to be treated is initially absorbed by the aqueous film that surrounds the biofilm, and then the biodegradation takes place within the biofilm.
The filtering material used in a BTF has to facilitate the gas and liquid flows through the bed, favor the development of the microflora, and should resist crushing and compaction. BTF packing that best meet these specifications are made from inert materials such as resins, ceramics, celite, polyurethane, foam 11 etc. As they are made from inert or synthetic material, BTFs need to be inoculated with suitable microbial culture. The use of activated sludge as initial microbial inoculum has been extensively reported 33 Biofilter BF processes differ from scrubbing techniques in that no free liquid phase is involved.
As far as waste air treatment is concerned, biofilters have proven cost effective operation mainly in two fields: In this process, contaminated gas is passed through a reactor containing an active microbial biofilm attached to a solid packing medium. Contaminants are transferred from the gas phase to the biofilm where they are oxidized to carbon dioxide, water, and biomass.
Contaminant transfer from the gas phase directly into the biofilm minimizes the mass transfer from the gas phase to a large moving aqueous phase and then to the biofilm The basic components of a biofilter include a packed bed reactor, a system for maintaining moisture content, and a blower to push or pull contaminated air through the porous medium.
Several process configurations may be used.
For example, air flow may be either up-flow or down-flow and water may be added to maintain moisture content by humidifying influent air or to the filter bed via a sprinkler or soaker hose. Packing media may consist of natural materials e. BFs now find wide application in treatment of several VOCs and odours.
Biofilter for the purification of air contaminated with triethylamine (TEA)
Among these are odourants such as ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, mercaptan,disulphides, etc. Bench and pilot scale studies have shown that 60 out of hazardous air pollutants HAPs can be successfully treated with biofiltration 20 BFs are typically used for the treatment of large volumes of air streams containing low concentration of VOCs or odorants. The advantages and disadvantages of BFs are discussed below.
These reactors require large areas, and are also exposed to climate changes. These reactors require less space than the open configuration. Passage of stringent air pollution laws and regulations has increased the need for cost an emerging technology for control of VOCs emissions from a variety of contaminated air streams 35 Biofiltration is well suited for treatment of waste gas streams characterized by high flow rates with low concentrations of biodegradable pollutants.
In recent years, biological treatment has expanded to applications in control of volatile organic compounds VOC in gas streams originating from a variety of industrial facilities and environmental remediation activities. Various non- biological methods exist for treatment of air contaminated by low concentrations of VOCs, and these are usually described as secondary treatment technologies.
Economic and regulatory constraints usually dictate the choice of technology used, and process selection is normally based on the nature, flow, and mode of emission. While several methods of contaminant removal are technically feasible for dilute VOC concentrations, most of the currently used methods have disadvantages. For example, thermal incineration is one of the most widely used secondary treatment technologies While the process is capable of high removal efficiencies, supplemental fuel is required, thus adding to the process cost, and secondary pollutants are generated e.
Adsorption using activated carbon allows for high VOC removal efficiencies particularly when low pollutant concentrations are involved. However, pollutants are transferred to the adsorbent rather than being destroyed, and the adsorbent must be regenerated or disposed of. Adsorbent regeneration or disposal can lead to high investment costs, while at the same time producing secondary pollutants.
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Biological treatment of VOC contaminated gases may meet treatment goals for many waste gas streams while at the same time minimize the disadvantages encountered with other treatment technologies. The most important physical, chemical and biological parameters influencing the biofiltration process are described below. The first step in the biofiltration process is the transfer of contaminants from the air to the water phase.
This is generally not a rate-limiting step, and so one frequently assumes that the gas and liquid are at equilibrium. The biofilm is a key element of the BF, which brings about the biodegradation of the pollutants viz. VOC and odorous compounds. The thickness of the biofilm is influenced by several factors. These include the type of pollutant, its rate of flow through the BF, the bedding material used, and the design and configuration of the treatment system being used. Biofilm thickness usually varies from tens of micrometers to more than 1 cm, although an average of 1 mm or less is usually observed Above this level, the diffusion of nutrients becomes a limiting factor Various steady state and dynamic mathematical models have been reported in literature to predict the substrate, oxygen and nutrient penetration profile in the biofilm and facilitate evaluation of overall biofilm effectiveness factor 38 43 The BF bed constitutes the heart of the biofiltration process because it provides the support for microbial growth.
Bohn established a list of characteristics that an ideal BF bed should possess. The most important desirable characteristics of the BF bed include a high specific surface area for development of a microbial biofilm and gas-biofilm mass transfer, b high porosity to facilitate homogeneous distribution of gases, c a good water retention capacity to avoid bed drying, d presence and availability of intrinsic nutrients, and e presence of a dense and diverse indigenous microflora. Peat, soil, compost, and wood chips, are the most frequently employed basic materials in BF beds.
These materials satisfy most of the required desirable criteria, and are widely available at low cost. Each of these materials has their own merits and demerits. The main advantage of soil is that, it offers a rich and varied microflora. It however, contains only a few intrinsic nutrients, presents low specific surface area and generates high-pressure drops Peat has high amounts of organic matter, high specific surface area, and good water holding capacity and good permeability.
However, peat contains neither high levels of mineral nutrients nor a dense indigenous microflora as in the case of soil or compost. Composts are materials that are most frequently employed in biofiltration for a variety of reasons. Compost offers a dense and varied microbial system, good water holding capacity, good air permeability, and contains large amounts of intrinsic nutrients.
Moreover, the utilization of compost in BFs constitutes an effective way of recycling and utilizing waste residual organic matter, such as activated sludge from wastewater treatment plants, forest products branches, leaves, barks , domestic residues, etc 6. However, composts are often less stable than soil or peat and have the tendency to break down and become compact, leading to increase in pressure drop in BF beds. This among other reasons is attributed to their high water holding capacity. Some authors have studied biofiltration using wood chips or barks as packing material 26 However, in general these authors have concluded that performances obtained with such filtering materials are less satisfactory than those obtained with compost or peat.
This has been explained by the low pH-buffering capacity, the low specific surface areas and the low nutrient content of such materials. Despite these deficiencies, wood barks are still widely used in BFs as support materials, in association with peat or compost. Politik - Internationale Politik - Region: German Studies - Linguistics. Biology - Micro- and Molecular Biology. Romanistik - Spanische Sprache, Literatur, Landeskunde.
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Our newsletter keeps you up to date with all new papers in your subjects. Request a new password via email. Inhaltsverzeichnis Abstract Introduction 2 Literature review 3 Materials and methods 3. E with inlet TEA conc. Triethylamine Toxicity Amines are widely used as catalysts in casting operations. Biological waste air treatment techniques Biological waste air treatment techniques utilize the capacity of microorganisms, mainly bacteria, to aerobically oxidize chemicals. The pollutants are used by the process biology as carbon and energy sources and the overall reaction, which is exothermic, can be written as follows: These include - Bioscrubber - Biotrickling filter - Biofilter The following sections outline these techniques Bioscrubber Bioscrubbers are reactors in which the gaseous pollutants are first absorbed in a free liquid phase prior to biodegradation by either suspended or immobilized microorganisms.
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten. Schematics of a bioscrubber unit Most of the bioscrubbers being operated presently use activated sludge derived from wastewater treatment plants as inoculums Advantages a Operational stability and better control of operating parameters pH, nutrients b Relatively lower pressure drops c Relatively smaller space requirement.
Schematics of a biotrickling filter unit The filtering material used in a BTF has to facilitate the gas and liquid flows through the bed, favor the development of the microflora, and should resist crushing and compaction.
Advantages a Less operating and capital costs b Low pressure drop c Capability to treat acid degradation products of VOCs Disadvantages a Accumulation of excess biomass in the filter bed b Complexity in construction and operation c Secondary waste streams Biofilter Biofilter BF processes differ from scrubbing techniques in that no free liquid phase is involved. Schematics of a biofilter unit BFs are typically used for the treatment of large volumes of air streams containing low concentration of VOCs or odorants.