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These had a compensating mechanism to keep the floor level as the angle of ascent changed at the first level, and were driven by a similar hydraulic mechanism to the Otis lifts, although this was situated at the base of the tower. Hydraulic pressure was provided by pressurised accumulators located near this mechanism.

The layout of both first and second levels was modified, with the space available for visitors on the second level. The original lift in the south pillar was removed 13 years later. Cloud to the Eiffel Tower and back in less than half an hour. Many innovations took place at the Eiffel Tower in the early 20th century.

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In , Father Theodor Wulf measured radiant energy at the top and bottom of the tower. He found more at the top than expected, incidentally discovering what are known today as cosmic rays. On 17 November, an improved line transmitter was installed. On two separate but related occasions in , the con artist Victor Lustig "sold" the tower for scrap metal.

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His aircraft became entangled in an aerial belonging to a wireless station. Upon the German occupation of Paris in , the lift cables were cut by the French. The tower was closed to the public during the occupation and the lifts were not repaired until When the Allies were nearing Paris in August , Hitler ordered General Dietrich von Choltitz , the military governor of Paris, to demolish the tower along with the rest of the city.

Von Choltitz disobeyed the order. A fire started in the television transmitter on 3 January , damaging the top of the tower. Repairs took a year, and in , the present radio aerial was added to the top. According to interviews, in , Montreal Mayor Jean Drapeau negotiated a secret agreement with Charles de Gaulle for the tower to be dismantled and temporarily relocated to Montreal to serve as a landmark and tourist attraction during Expo The plan was allegedly vetoed by the company operating the tower out of fear that the French government could refuse permission for the tower to be restored in its original location.

In , the original lifts between the second and third levels were replaced after 97 years in service. These had been closed to the public between November and March because the water in the hydraulic drive tended to freeze. The new cars operate in pairs, with one counterbalancing the other, and perform the journey in one stage, reducing the journey time from eight minutes to less than two minutes. At the same time, two new emergency staircases were installed, replacing the original spiral staircases. In , the south pillar was fitted with an electrically driven Otis lift to serve the Jules Verne restaurant.

The cars were replaced, and a computer system was installed to completely automate the lifts. The motive power was moved from the water hydraulic system to a new electrically driven oil-filled hydraulic system, and the original water hydraulics were retained solely as a counterbalance system. Robert Moriarty flew a Beechcraft Bonanza under the tower on 31 March Hackett made one of his first bungee jumps from the top of the Eiffel Tower, using a special cord he had helped develop. Hackett was arrested by the police.

When firemen arrived, he stopped after the sixth jump. For its "Countdown to the Year " celebration on 31 December , flashing lights and high-powered searchlights were installed on the tower. Fireworks were set off all over it. An exhibition above a cafeteria on the first floor commemorates this event.

The searchlights on top of the tower made it a beacon in Paris's night sky, and 20, flashing bulbs gave the tower a sparkly appearance for five minutes every hour on the hour. The lights sparkled blue for several nights to herald the new millennium On 31 December The sparkly lighting continued for 18 months until July The sparkling lights were turned on again on 21 June , and the display was planned to last for 10 years before they needed replacing.

The tower received its ,,th guest on 28 November When it was built, many were shocked by the tower's daring form. Eiffel was accused of trying to create something artistic with no regard to the principles of engineering. However, Eiffel and his team — experienced bridge builders — understood the importance of wind forces, and knew that if they were going to build the tallest structure in the world, they had to be sure it could withstand them. In an interview with the newspaper Le Temps published on 14 February , Eiffel said:.

Is it not true that the very conditions which give strength also conform to the hidden rules of harmony? It was wind resistance. I hold that the curvature of the monument's four outer edges, which is as mathematical calculation dictated it should be … will give a great impression of strength and beauty, for it will reveal to the eyes of the observer the boldness of the design as a whole.

He used graphical methods to determine the strength of the tower and empirical evidence to account for the effects of wind, rather than a mathematical formula. Close examination of the tower reveals a basically exponential shape. The top half was even assumed to have no gaps in the latticework. The most recent, devised in after letters sent by Eiffel to the French Society of Civil Engineers in were translated into English, is described as a non-linear integral equation based on counteracting the wind pressure on any point of the tower with the tension between the construction elements at that point.

When originally built, the first level contained three restaurants—one French, one Russian and one Flemish —and an "Anglo-American Bar". After the exposition closed, the Flemish restaurant was converted to a seat theatre. At the top, there were laboratories for various experiments, and a small apartment reserved for Gustave Eiffel to entertain guests, which is now open to the public, complete with period decorations and lifelike mannequins of Eiffel and some of his notable guests.

In May , an apartment was created on the first level to accommodate four competition winners during the UEFA Euro football tournament in Paris in June. The apartment has a kitchen, two bedrooms, a lounge, and views of Paris landmarks including the Seine , the Sacre Coeur , and the Arc de Triomphe. The arrangement of the lifts has been changed several times during the tower's history.

Given the elasticity of the cables and the time taken to align the cars with the landings, each lift, in normal service, takes an average of 8 minutes and 50 seconds to do the round trip, spending an average of 1 minute and 15 seconds at each level. The average journey time between levels is 1 minute.

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The original hydraulic mechanism is on public display in a small museum at the base of the east and west legs. Because the mechanism requires frequent lubrication and maintenance, public access is often restricted. The rope mechanism of the north tower can be seen as visitors exit the lift. Gustave Eiffel engraved on the tower the names of 72 French scientists, engineers and mathematicians in recognition of their contributions to the building of the tower. Eiffel chose this "invocation of science" because of his concern over the artists' protest.

The tower is painted in three shades: The only non-structural elements are the four decorative grill-work arches, added in Sauvestre's sketches, which served to make the tower look more substantial and to make a more impressive entrance to the exposition. The tower has been completely repainted at least 19 times since it was built. Lead paint was still being used as recently as when the practice was stopped out of concern for the environment. The tower has two restaurants: Le 58 Tour Eiffel on the first level, and Le Jules Verne , a gourmet restaurant with its own lift on the second level.

This restaurant has one star in the Michelin Red Guide. It was run by the multi- Michelin star chef Alain Ducasse from to Additionally, there is a champagne bar at the top of the Eiffel Tower. From until , there was a restaurant near the top of the tower. It was removed due to structural considerations; engineers had determined it was too heavy and was causing the tower to sag.

It was rebuilt on the edge of New Orleans' Garden District as a restaurant and later event hall. As one of the most iconic landmarks in the world, the Eiffel Tower has been the inspiration for the creation of many replicas and similar towers. An early example is Blackpool Tower in England. The mayor of Blackpool, Sir John Bickerstaffe, was so impressed on seeing the Eiffel Tower at the exposition that he commissioned a similar tower to be built in his town.

It opened in and is There are various scale models of the tower in the United States, including a half-scale version at the Paris Las Vegas , Nevada, one in Paris, Texas built in , and two 1: The tower has been used for making radio transmissions since the beginning of the 20th century. Until the s, sets of aerial wires ran from the cupola to anchors on the Avenue de Suffren and Champ de Mars. These were connected to longwave transmitters in small bunkers. In , a permanent underground radio centre was built near the south pillar, which still exists today.

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The object of the transmissions was to measure the difference in longitude between Paris and Washington, D. A television antenna was first installed on the tower in , increasing its height by Work carried out in added a further 5. The tower and its image have long been in the public domain. The Court of Cassation , France's judicial court of last resort, upheld the ruling in March The imposition of copyright has been controversial.

French doctrine and jurisprudence allows pictures incorporating a copyrighted work as long as their presence is incidental or accessory to the subject being represented, [92] a reasoning akin to the de minimis rule. Therefore, SETE may be unable to claim copyright on photographs of Paris which happen to include the lit tower. The Eiffel Tower was the world's tallest structure when completed in , a distinction it retained until when the Chrysler Building in New York City was topped out.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This article is about the landmark in Paris, France. For other uses, see Eiffel Tower disambiguation. Seen from the Champ de Mars. Construction of the cupola. List of the 72 names on the Eiffel Tower. List of Eiffel Tower replicas. List of tallest towers in the world and Observation deck. List of tallest structures in France. Official Eiffel Tower website. Archived from the original on 14 April Retrieved 15 April The Aesthetics of Movement. University of Massachusetts Press. Anne Hyde Greet, ed.

Poems of Peace and War — University of California Press. Archived from the original on 31 July Retrieved 1 January Archived from the original on 25 April Retrieved 16 April Retrieved 2 January Contains results of the four-day-long observation done by Theodor Wulf at the top of the Eiffel Tower in Le Petit Parisien in French.

Retrieved 26 November A History of Early Television. How two men's dreams changed the skyline of New York".

Archived from the original on 27 February Henry Holt and Company. Archived from the original on 31 March Retrieved 13 March Archived from the original on 7 April Retrieved 29 May However, the supply of ammunition became problematic due to the state of the German railway network. Time had become critical, and it was decided to use a millimetre 5.

By the time that the Ardennes offensive began on 16 December , Kammler received orders from OB West German Army Command in the West to begin firing at the end of the month, and the first gun tube was ready for action on 30 December Two warm-up rounds were initially fired, followed by five high-explosive shells which were fired in sequence, attended by Kammler. The second gun tube was brought into operation on 11 January and some rounds in total were fired until 22 February , with 44 confirmed hits in the urban area.

The guns were not particularly effective; from the rounds that struck Luxembourg, total casualties were 10 dead and 35 wounded. One of the two Lampaden guns was dismantled on 15 February, [31] and firing ceased on 22 February, when US Army units had advanced to within 3 kilometres 1.

A second battery of guns began to be deployed in January at Buhl , aimed at Belfort in support of the Operation Nordwind offensive. One gun was erected before the failure of the Nordwind offensive put the site at risk, and the equipment was removed before firing could begin. There were other proposals to deploy batteries to bombard London , Paris , Antwerp and other cities but these were not implemented due to the poor state of the German railway network and a lack of ammunition. The Mimoyecques museum allows visitors to view the galleries in various stages of construction and bombing damage , remains of the guns, a small scale V-3 replica, and examples of machinery, rail systems and tools employed.

The site also contains memorials to the slave labourers who were employed by the Nazis to construct it [32] and to the airmen killed in action during the destruction of the base. The Misdroy site also has a museum. Hugh Hunt of Cambridge University, together with explosives engineer Charlie Adcock created a working scale model of the V-3 gun and was able to prove the ignition of the propellants was done by the advancing gas behind the projectile. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

This article is about the German supergun, also known as the "London gun". For other uses, see V3. The prototype V-3 cannon at Laatzig , Germany now Poland in Moreover, the shells had to be made in progressively larger diameter to compensate for wear of the tube, and were numbered from 1 to 65 to be used in the correct order. The V-3 Pump Gun. Retrieved 24 December Archived from the original on 22 August Retrieved 11 June The Illustrated encyclopedia of 20th century weapons and warfare. Les Canons De L'apocalypse. National Museum of Military History.

Retrieved 1 June Retrieved 26 October Retrieved 9 June William Kimber and Co. Wood, Paul; Ford, Roger German V-Weapon Sites Ginisty, Paul 2 March Retrieved 29 June Gun making in the United States. Retrieved 28 June Haskell, James Richard Van Nostrand's eclectic engineering magazine. Some time back we referred to the construction of the gun known as the accelerator in which a series of chambers were arranged at the side of the bore for containing charges of powder which exploded in succession as the projectile moved along it towards the muzzle until the combination of the charges exerted their full force upon the base of the shot to throw or propel it.

The success of the small one led the gentlemen interested in its production for field or battery purposes to endeavor to have one of a large size cast. This gun was tried in the United States a few miles below Reading Pennsylvania on the old proving ground. Encyclopedia of military technology and innovation.

The New York Times. The first large cannon constructed on the accelerating or multi-charge principle and to be known as the Lyman-Haskell gun was casted today at the foundry of the Reading Iron Works. Lyman Holley, Alexander A treatise on ordnance and armor. Report of the Chief of Ordnance to the Secretary of War. German artillery of World War II. Jones Duncan Sandys Babington-Smith.