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Ivan confirmed his decision to leave for Moscow the next day. Indeed the next morning Ivan left his father's for what he thought would be the last time. At the begin- ning of his trip, Ivan felt happy; all his ties with everyone in his native city had been cut, all his commitments dismissed. Ivan felt himself free again, his "own". But the next day, while his train was approaching Mos- cow, Ivan was suddenly overcome by anguish. He began to doubt whether his acts and behavior were correct and even said to himself "I am base" Dostoevsky versus Max Stirner 3" XIV: That feeling of uneasiness and anxiety unknown to Stirner's self-sure individual would intensify after Ivan's forced return to the native city after the murder of his father.
Ivan's visits to Smerdyakov continued ,. Finally, on his third and final visit to Smerdyakov, when the hated lackey accused Ivan, his former idol, of being the real murderer of the old Karamazov, Ivan's doubts in the correctness of his philosophy and of his formula "everything is permitted" became more pronounced. Ivan said to Smerdyakov that they would both go to the trial and confess the following day. When he reached his house, Ivan thought suddenly that he should go at once to the prosecutor and tell him everything.
Then he decided that the next day would be soon enough, and he would confess everything at the trial. Ivan found his imaginary "visitor" - "the devil of his hallucination. Ivan had to listen to the "devil's" explanation of his own philosophical views. The "devil" - Ivan's own inner voice - mockingly displayed the basic concepts of his philosophy XV: The "devil" reminded Ivan of his affirmation that there is no God and no immortality.
The God-man will be denied and man will become God. For the new Man-God will order his life as he pleases on new principles. The new Man-God will overstep all the barriers of the old morality, and all things will be permitted to him. Ivan listened with indignation to what he saw as a distortion of his own philosophical views.
It is clear that Ivan formed his views with Ludwig Felferbach's theory of the deification of man mixing with Max Stirner's extreme egoism. But now Ivan had to listen to the "devil's" mocking presentation of that philosophy. Finally, brought to a state of frenzy, Ivan tried to stop the "devil's" recitation by throwing at him, his hallucination, his glass of tea. Ivan was able to disentangle himself from his nightmarish hallucina- tion when he heard knocking at his window. Ivan knew that it was Alyo- sha and shouted at him, "Alyosha, I told you not to come.
Why did you come? Notwithstanding his rejection of his brother, now, after the news of Smerdyakov' s suicide, Ivan let Alyosha to come and told him of his "visitor-the devil" Ivan said that "he the devil is myself. All that is base in me, that is mean and contemptible". However Ivan continued to 10 See my article: The "devil" cynically mocked Ivan's decision to testify at the trial: That the lackey acted at your instigation But that was a lie, Ivan exclaimed. He did not want to be praised by the others whom he hated.
He was going even to hate Alyosha again because Alyosha could despise him. Diabolic persistence on his egoistic theories which he mocked already through his "devil", and an aggravated despisal of other people motivated Ivan's erratic behavior at the trial. His mind - tormented by two opposite tendencies - collapsed, causing a sudden catastrophe, leaving his future in a tragic uncertaintly.
To conclude, we may say that the analysis of a few cases of Stirner's re- flection in Dostoevky's works shows the writer's denial of Stirner's athe- ism and his extreme egoism. In the image of two protagonists, the repulsive figures of the Old Karamazov and Prince Valkovsky, Dostoevsky showed that the adoption of Stirner's views resulted in a corruption of their personalities. Not only they themselves were immersed into immorality, but by their evil acts and behavior they caused harm and perdition to other people. Nikolay Stavrogin, who followed Stirner's destructive philosophy of extreme egoism mixed with Feuerbach' s atheism, was unable to return to traditional morals.
He perished in a state of hatred of all mankind and also of his own ego for his inability to reject the principles and views in which he no longer believed. The same is true of Ivan Karamazov though with quite another end of the story, since he, eventually, returns from madness to life as the chronicler assures his readers. Dostoevsky Studies, New Series, Vol. Astley The year saw the death at the age of 88 of one of the founding members of the International Dostoevsky Society, Frank Friedeberg Seeley.
Present at the Inaugural Symposium in Bad Ems in , where he gave a paper and assisted in framing the Society's constitution, he continued to play an active role in its symposia until prevented by old age and infirmity. A specialist on Turgenev as well as on Dostoevsky, with a particular interest in the psychology of their characters, he would dearly have loved to be present at the XI International Symposium, for it was in Baden-Baden at the age of 1 1 that he met the little Russian Princess who inspired him to undertake a study of Russian in his teens.
My subject is at first sight a unique and surprising occurrence in Dostoevsky' s work, a fictional Englishman in Baden-Baden or rather Roulettenburg. Moreover, as we shall see, this is not simply a minor, pe- ripheral character. Even more surprising, in view of Dostoevsky' s xenophobia, and the depiction of other non-Russians in the novel, Mr.
Astley is, in the view of most readers, the one foreigner in Dostoevsky' s major works presented in a positive light. It is unlikely that Dostoevsky based Mr. Astley on any See Malcolm V. Dostoevsky Studies, New Series 5 This obituary includes a select bibliography. Jones real-life encounter with an Englishman.
His name, as G. Fridlender first reminded us, is taken from Elizabeth Gaskell's Ruth. Gaskell's novel, the non-conformist min- ister Mr. Farquar in his relationship with Jemima Brad- shaw, have important characteristics in common with Dostoevsky's hero. We should of course be mistaken in supposing that he has a single literary prototype.
As is to be expected, Mr. Astley's literary origins are more dif- fuse. The stereotype of the Englishman abroad was well established by the time Dostoevsky wrote Igrok, and his admiration for the English novel, in particular that of Dickens, is well attested. Pickwick, after all, was one of the prototypes for Prince Myshkin, the hero of Dostoev- sky's next major work. The commentary in the Complete Works summa- rises for us, the figure of the Englishman Mr.
Astley, who awakens a sympathetic response in Aleksei Ivanovich, the grandmother and Polina, reminds the reader of the good, noble-minded heroes of Dickens' novels [ Astley and Polina have psychological parallels with those of the principal characters in George Sand's first novel Indiana [ In my view, Sand's Indiana offers the most persuasive analogy.
Although he nowhere mentions this work by name, Dostoevsky included Sand's early novellas among his favourite reading. Astley, owes his fortune to trade in the West Indian colonies though in coffee rather than sugar ; he transmutes his deep passion for the heroine into a life of selfless service and brotherly friendship, which includes an I am grateful to Ganna Bograd for drawing my attention to a reference to conversations with an Englishman in one of Polina Suslova's letters to la.
The letter, or rather brief note, was written from Paris some time in , where Dostoevsky arrived on 27 August. They proceeded together to Baden-Baden a few days later, arriving on 4 September. But I am unaware of any evidence that Dostoevsky himself met this Englishmen or that Polina spoke to him about him. Fridlender here points out that the beginning of Mrs Gaskell's novel Ruth was published in Vremia, , No. The closure of the journal prevented its continua- tion. It was from this novel that Dostoevsky borrowed the surname Astley Vremia, 4 The Enigma of Mr.
Astley 41 attempt to protect her from more predatory, unprincipled and superficially brilliant men. But al- though such typological parallels leap to the eye. The Gothic atmosphere of Sand's novel, together with its implicit plea for the emancipation of women, is transmuted according to a familiar pattern into a Dostoevskian comedy built on a psychology of extremes.
So why is Mr. Astley worth studying further? Given the setting, and Dostoevsky's known affection for Dickens' positive characters, his ap- pearance in this novel is perhaps less surprising that it seems at first sight. It is perhaps not so very extraordinary that, in the context of a group of highly excitable Russians, morally dubious Frenchmen and women, dull, humourless Germans and slippery Poles - all in their way caricatures - and in the absence of a Dostoevskian saintly hero or heroine, he should appear to be the novel's source of positive values, good sense and emo- tional stability.
Astley' s recorded views is the belief that Russians owe all their knowledge to Europe, his positive image and role in Igrok remain remarkable. He is the only positive foreigner of any standing in the whole of Dostoevsky's oeuvre. So what else do we know about Mr. He is apparently the son of an English peer called Lord Peabrook or Peabroke, or Pibroch' the reader does not know how to spell this name in English, since, unlike the other English names in Dostoevsky's novel, it appears not to be authentic - perhaps it derives from an erroneous transcription of Pembroke.
He converses with the narrator in appalling French and with the Grandmother through an interpreter. His relatives live in the North of England. He has a relative called Mr. Feeder, but we know nothing more about his background. As we have seen, he conforms in some measure to That the name might be based on the word pibroch a Scottish bagpipe is a seductive thought, but it is hardly credible that this word, let alone its meaning, would have been known to Dostoevsky. Although I have been unable to trace instances of the other possible spellings of the name, it is not in itself entirely implausible.
Jones the literary stereotype of the rich Englishman abroad, so the reader can easily fill in the gaps. Psychologically, as well as socially, he shares some stereotypical English characteristics. He is honest, gentle, intelligent, shy, withdrawn, reticent, reliable and discreet.
He is the kind of Englishman who is fasci- nated by roulette, observes and formulates the rules of chance but never, so far as we know, actually plays himself. He is the kind of Englishman who falls desperately in love with an exciting young Russian woman whom he has met on holiday but, sensing that his passion is not requited, keeps it to himself, betraying his infatuation only by his blushes and by his obsession with her welfare.
He is the kind of Englishman who will go to tremendous lengths to run into the object of his affections but, having succeeded, pass by without a word. All the major Russian characters like, trust and confide in him, including the narrator, Polina and the Grand- mother. He is a force for moderation, altruism, emotional self-control. His contribution to events, where not neutral, appears to be beneficial. His judgment of people, though not unquestioned by the narrator, appears to be fair, selfless and commonsensical.
Stereotypical he may be, but he is not "flat" or caricatured. In fact he is unique in this respect among the non-Russian characters in the novel. Psychologically he is entirely plausible, entering, as we have remarked, into productive dialogue with the major Russian characters. The fact that the narrator does not always understand him should not lead us to suppose that Dostoevsky does not understand him either.
In terms of Frank Seeley's typology of Dostoevsky' s early characters 6 , he is a social being, that is, he lives in terms of his relationship with others, rather than turn inward to a fantasy world. Yet, although he is relatively whole, his con- duct and his actions are deflected by his infatuation with Polina and one is left to assume that his obsession with the General's retinue, friendship for the narrator and frequent coincidental appearances, are tied up with this infatuation.
To this extent he can be classified with the obsessionals or obsessives of Dostoevsky' s major novels. The vital difference is that his obsession does not express itself in aggressive or destructive behaviour either towards others or towards himself. Nor another stereotypically English feature does it express itself in metaphysical reflection, or in re- Frank Seeley: Saviour or Su- perman? Old and New Essays on Dostoevsky, Nottingham: Momentary anger towards the narrator for his lack of respect towards the object of their joint affections is as far as anger goes, and this is quickly resolved in a gesture of reconciliation.
Astley is of vital importance in the economy of the novel. As noted earlier, he appears in 15 out of 17 chapters and virtually frames the story, appearing in its Vorgeschichte, early in the first chapter, and again at the end of the book. The two chapters in which he contributes most to the conversational dialogue are situated half way through the novel Chapter 8 , where he explains to the narrator the mysteries concerning the General's retinue and is present when the Grandmother bursts upon the scene, and again at the end Chapter 17 where he contributes to the resolution, and foreshadows future events.
Though not the narrator him- self, he exists in a symbiotic relationship with the hero-narrator, in a rela- tionship that recalls those of Dostoevsky's later heroes with their "ema- nations" or "doubles". His interventions affect both the devel- opment of the action and the destinies of the characters. The narrator has met him three times by chance before the action begins, in Prussia, in France and in Switzerland. Now he meets him again in Germany and he repeatedly turns up during the course of the narrative.
He has previously met the General and Mile Blanche and her supposed mother. He is confi- dant to both the narrator and to Polina. He plays a significant role in the action as a rival in love to the narrator, though in fact neither is success- ful. Throughout the narrative he both facilitates events and offers expla- nations for circumstances that the narrator does not understand. It is he who explains the web of relationships that binds Mile Blanche, de Grieux, the General and the Baron. He shows the narrator how roulette is played. He acts as intermediary between the narrator and Polina.
He lends or gives money to the Grandmother, the General, the narrator and of course to Polina. At the end of the novel Polina has been ill and has lived for some time with Mr. Astley' s mother and sister in the North of England. Astley' s sister's family. This term is used somewhat indiscriminately in Dostoevsky criticism even in some of the best, and is in need of a fresh study in its own right.
I shall add only that whereas some of Dostoevsky's "doubles" seem to be projections of a particular aspect of the personality of a hero onto a secondary character, Mr Astley seems, if anything, to represent something that Aleksei Ivanovich senses to be lacking in his own personality. Moreover, it is not clear that Mr Astley would have much interest in Aleksei Ivanovich if they were not both emotionally involved with Polina.
Jones brother and sister are being educated in London and we are left to assume that such exposure to Western European education is beneficial to them. No less importantly, Mr. Astley's presence exercises a moderating influ- ence on the behaviour of other characters. The reader is left with the impression that Mr. Astley is not only knowledgeable but also right in his judgment of people.
He was, after all, correct in predicting the narrator's departure for Paris.
Gute Motive
Aleksei Ivanovich does not always agree with him, but, like everyone else, he respects his opinion and values his friendship highly. He even discounts Mr. Astley's anti-Russian sentiments, as being uttered in a moment of anger. However, though he is capable of explaining much that would otherwise remain a mystery, Mr. Astley is not omniscient. Sometimes he is unable or un- willing to provide information we do not always know which ; at other times he withholds it out of discretion. But so far as we can tell, his in- formation is entirely reliable: His contribution to inner dialogue is not of course to be measured by his contribution to conversational dialogue, which is slight by com- parison with other major characters.
It is rather to be measured by the quality, timeliness and effectiveness of his interventions, and by the fact that he is constantly in the narrator's mind. It is always to Mr. Astley that Aleksei Ivanovich turns when events threaten to run out of control and he who magically appears at crucial junctures in the narrative. At first sight Mr.
Astley might seem to be peripheral to the novel's main theme of obsessive gambling and the central chronotope of the ca- sino. In a novel entitled The Gambler, he turns out not to be one of na- ture's risk-takers, a fact which we should see against the background of the major risks taken by Dostoevsky's characters and by the author him- self at this time in his life.
He stands on the sidelines, an interested, informed and intelligent spectator, but not a participant. The novel as a whole swiftly dissipates any echo of Pushkin's German that the reader may momentarily catch. Astley is not about to sacrifice human relationships in the illusory pursuit of further riches; least of all does he stake everything on a card. On the contrary, Mr.
Astley's is a stabilising role in the human drama unfolding around him. He prevents it from descending into tragedy, farce or melodrama. He acts as an anchor against the forces of instability, arbi- trariness, self-de con struction and fluidity which otherwise haunt the The Enigma of Mr. He provides a touchstone of common sense and moral probity against which the narrator and the reader can judge events. We are left to infer that he will strongly influence the future of the two main charac- ters, Polina and the narrator, both of whom respect him, trust him and are morally in his debt.
It is perhaps surprising that a character that makes such a notable contribution to the narrative, both as a fully-fledged character playing an active role in the drama and as an important structuring element, has not attracted more critical attention. So what significance does this character, who is neither neurotic nor saintly, have for Dostoevsky's development as a novelist?
Let us begin with the least important considerations. Dostoevsky re- hearses in Igrok fragments of a number of scenes and situations that are developed in the major novels, some trivial, some more significant. For example, the narrator first met this "strange Englishman" in Prussia, in a railway carriage, where they were seated opposite each other, just as Myshkin and Rogozhin are at the beginning of Idiot.
The anticipation of Idiot does not stop there. In his relationship to the narrator and de Grieux on the one hand and to Polina on the other, Mr. This echo is strengthened by similarities in the characters of Po- lina and Nastas'ia Filippovna, deriving in some measure from their com- mon origin in Polina Suslova.
Astley even has some character traits in common with Myshkin: The similarities are only partial, however. He does judge the narrator at the close; he is apparently capable of deep passion; he is said to be a wealthy businessman though everything else we know of him suggests an gentleman dilettante who divides his time between Euro- pean spas and scientific expeditions. Since Idiot was Dostoevsky's next major work, and his mind turned to at least one English prototype as he contemplated his final characterisation of Myshkin, we cannot dismiss these echoes and similarities out of hand.
But their significance is rela- tively slight. The second, and much more important, factor is that although no more Mr. Astleys, and certainly no more Englishmen, appear in Dostoev- sky's subsequent major works, he does mark an important stage in the development of the Dostoevskian novel by introducing a stable element of empirical realism into a world populated by characters who resist both and who tend to confuse reality and fantasy.
We may remind ourselves 46 Malcolm V. Jones that, like Igrok, Zapiski iz podpoVia had a first-person narrative, but it does not have a Mr. Astley to provide ballast in the world of empirical realism, a role that the ideal reader is called upon to play. Prestuplenie i nakazanie, written in tandem with Igrok, was originally conceived as a first person narrative, abandoned in favour of an omniscient non- participant narrator. Empirical ballast is provided, omnisicient narrator apart, notably by Razumikhin.
Very probably Dostoevsky did not con- sciously and fully appreciate the importance of this factor in his emergent realism, for Idiot reveals him veering from omniscient narrator, to non- participant chronicler. Perhaps it would be truer to say that Dostoevsky had not fully discovered the most effective way of incorporating this vital ingredient.
In Besy the role is played by the participant chronicler who narrates the tale. Astley has a number of characteristics in common with Anton Lavrentevich, Besy' 's narrator. He is young, has em- ployment, intelligence, common sense, and education. He is persona grata with the well off and well born, but has no scruples about consort- ing and making friends with those who occupy lower positions in the so- cial hierarchy. He falls in love with the young heroine; other people in- stinctively trust him and confide in him. He has considerable intellectual and social curiosity. His emotional stability is complemented by an ability to read the minds of those who are emotionally unstable.
Whether or not Mr. Astley possesses the imagination necessary to depict the melodra- matic scenes involving Polina and the narrator which we actually see through the latter' s eyes and the literary skills necessary to turn it all into a convincing narrative, as Anton Lavrentevich does with his story, we do not know. But there is nothing to suggest that he does not and some hints that he does. Finally, in Brat'ia Karamazovy the participant chronicler steps back to the sideline, but he continues to perform Mr. Astley' s stabi- lising role.
Perhaps Dostoevsky discovered round about the time of the writing of Prestuplenie i nakazanie and Igrok that his melodramatic plots and deeply neurotic characters needed the unobtrusive presence of Mr. Astleys scat- tered around them to guarantee the illusion of realism. In previous work I have suggested that Dostoevsky' s major characters deploy interpersonal strategies of a kind seemingly calculated to drive each other crazy. Astley does not do. In our obsession with the distinctive Malcolm V. Dostoevsky after Bakhtin, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Astley 47 characteristics of Dostoevsky's fantastic realism and Dostoevsky's own rejection of the traditions of naturalism we may be in danger of underes- timating the importance of what we may call the Astley factor in the economy of his fictional world.
Having said this, however, it is also important to remind ourselves that, although the Astley factor is an important one in Dostoevsky's ma- ture work, offering stability in a familiar common-sense world, a world more characteristic of Tolstoi or Turgenev, it is never the ultimate touch- stone of reality in the higher sense.
Even when it finds its voice in the nar- rator, it is. Yet it does occupy a privileged position as intermediary between the dysfunc- tional heroes and heroines of Dostoevsky's fictional world and the pre- sumed commonsense reader. Astley reminds us of is that this world is not inevitably rejected or ironised by Dostoevsky: I began by paying tribute to the work of Frank Seeley on the psychol- ogy of Dostoevsky's heroes and heroines.
In one of his articles he writes: Astley seems to defy this generalisation. While he interacts dialogically with the narrator of Igrok and. Yet paradoxically he appears to understand them very well, just as with- out actually playing roulette he seems to understand the psychology of gambling and its psychology very well. In large part this is the result of careful observation and analysis, but in some measure it is also through psychological insight, empathy and shared experience: W 7 hat better point of view could there be from which to narrate a Dostoevskian novel?
Or even, and I close with this thought, perhaps to study it? Old and New Essays on Tolstoy and Dostoevsky. Astra Press pp. Schon diese beiden Motive faszinieren viele Leser. Im Spieler scheint es keine wirklich be- deutsame, philosophisch und metaphysisch vertiefte Problematik zu ge- ben. Auf letzteren Aspekt kann in dieser Studie allerdings aus Raum- mangel nicht eingegangen werden. Der ewige Gatte, Die Sanfte u. Sie gliedert sich in Epochen oder Perioden. Greift man Savage's eben zitierte Worte auf, die ein Resultat seiner Analyse der Psyche des Spielers sind, so verweisen sie in der Tat auf ein zentrales Thema der Moderne, - den Zerfall des Ichs, der zwei Jahrzehnte nach Dostoevskijs Roman in den Schriften des Physikers, Psychologen und Philosophen Ernst Mach theoretisch fundiert und klar dargelegt wur- de und zu dem auch Sigmund Freud durch die Betonung der Rolle des Unbewussten und des Triebhaften im Menschen einen Beitrag leistete.
Was bleibt sind wechselnde Empfindungen. Hermann Bahr bezog sich in seinem Aufsatz Das unrett- bare Ich auf Mach und formulierte noch deutlicher: Es [das Ich] ist nur ein Name. Es ist nur eine Illusion Nun droht sie auch uns zu vernichten. Da werden wir erkennen, dass das Element unseres Lebens nicht die Wahrheit ist. In Der Fall Wagner. Ein Mu- sikantenproblem Kap. Erstarrung oder Feindschaft und Chaos Fofanov sieht die Welt als.. Bei Dostoevskij liest sich dies so: Wie die Roulettkugel im Kreise rollt und ohne..
So sagt Ivanov von sich, dass er.. Er verliert sich in alogischen und absurden Taten, wird psychisch krank. So sagt der Spieler von sich, er sei.. Auch Polina kennt dieselben Motive. Die genannten Motive lassen sich auf einen gemeinsamen Nenner bringen: Cechov sagt von seiner Generation: Sein Ivanov bezeichnet sich selbst als Psychopath. Dostoevskij verwendet zwar diese Begriffe nicht, sie lassen sich aber oh- ne weiteres auf den Spieler und Polina anwenden!
Am Ende des Romans ist er so weit, dass er Moral an sich ablehnt: Eine andere Lesart 53 Zeit? Hass wechselt ab mit Liebe. So sagt sich der Spieler: Ich antwortete mir zum hundertstenmal, dass ich sie hasste. Dennoch gesteht er Mr. Astley am Ende des Romans: Zwischen den beiden Zitaten entfaltet sich auf ca. Astley am Ende des Romans betont, stets ge- liebt hat. Sie verachtet aber auch de Grieux. Und an die Adresse des Spielers: Ich liebe sie nicht mehr als de Grieux Die Liebe des Spielers zu Polina tragt eindeutig sadomasochistische Zuge.
Der Spie- ler gesteht: Es liegt eine gewisse Wonne im letzten Stadium der Erniedrigung und Nichtigkeit". Blanche sieht in ihm einen.. Aber auch die stolze Polina kennt den Genuss der Erniedrigung. Zumindest sieht der Spieler in ihr die Sklavin des de Grieux, in dessen Gewalt sie sich augenscheinlich befindet. Und die allerstolzesten werden die niedrigsten Sklavinnen" Der Mensch ist von Natur aus despotisch und peinigt alles andere gern".
Dies steht am Beginn des Romans. Bei Sacher-Masoch ist der autobiographische Bezug noch wesent- lich deutlicher als bei Dostoevskij. Polnoe sobranie socinenij i pisem. Aus dem Russischen von Arthur Luther. Erstmals zitiert als Dostoevskij. In der Folge nur mit Seitenangabe.
Stanford University Press Literarische Manifeste der Jahrhundertwende Cechov und das Kierkegaardsche Paradigma, in: Insel Taschenbuch u. Die Begegnung mit Ludwig II. Ullstein Buch Bd. Der vorliegende Abriss verfolgt zwei Ziele: In der Narratologie kann man zwei Disziplinen unterscheiden: Contemporary Poetics, London Ubersetzung von ; franz. Zum heutigen Stand der Narratologie vgl. Die Perspektivtechnik Dostoevskijs ist relativ gut erforscht. Lange galt es als ausgemacht: Roman und Gesell- schaft. Internationales Michail-Bachtin-Colloquium, Jena Dann sind zwei Erscheinungsformen der erlebten Rede zu nennen: Gleichwohl ist Wolosinows Buch zu einem Meilenstein in der Erfor- schung der erlebten Rede und verwandter Formen geworden.
Die Welt der Slaven, Bd. Die Perspektive ist nicht ein kom- paktes, einheitliches Verfahren, sondern tritt auf unterschiedlichen Ebe- nen auf und manifestiert sich auf ihnen in je eigener Weise. Uspenskij unterscheidet vier Ebenen: Diese Geschichte ist die Geschichte des eigenen Scheiterns. In Cechovs Welt scheinen sich allenthalben wesentliche Ver- Hier sind vor allem die zahlreichen Arbeiten Jan van der Engs zu nennen; vgl.
A Note on Dostoevski's Novelistic Innovations. Situation Rhyme in a Novel of Dostoevsky. Dostoevskij ist dagegen der Vertreter einer starken Ereig- nishaftigkeit. Die Leute verstehen nicht, wie man in einem solchen Stil schreiben kann. In al- lem sind sie gewohnt, die Fratze des Verfassers zu sehen; ich habe aber meine gar nicht gezeigt.
Dostoevsky was ostensibly on honeymoon, but he spent most of his time at the roulette wheel. He wished to avoid Baden's most famous Russian resident, but Goncharov, who was also there, informed him that Turgenev had already seen him, but had not wished to approach him, because he knew that those gambling did not like to be spoken to. Dostoevsky felt obliged to pay him a visit. Its main thrust was ideological, but not en- tirely so.
Joseph Frank, pointing to the unflattering vignette of the gam- blers at Baden, with which Turgenev opens his novel, suggests that Tur- genev' s own hesitation in approaching Dostoevsky sprang from a sense that in this opening he had implicitly included Dostoevsky among those References in round brackets in the notes, and in the text, are to volume and page s of: Similar references in square brackets are to: In this collection the volumes of letters are numbered separately.
For an account of this quarrel see Joseph Frank: The Miraculous Years, , London Turgenev's portrayal of one of his gamblers, Bindasov, could well have touched a raw nerve: Turgenev, himself, then draws a general perhaps even personal con- clusion: Two years before, the roulette wheel had left Dostoevsky in dire straits in Wiesbaden, and he had turned for help to Turgenev in Baden, requesting a loan of - not golden gulden - but silver thalers, to be repaid in a month' s time.
Turgenev himself was short of money, but sent him half the amount requested. The debt was still outstanding. Later in the novel Litvinov witnesses Bindasov at the tables winning a sum of money four times the amount of his loan, without offering to return it: Indeed, when Bindasov next visits Litvinov it is to borrow money again. Dostoevsky' s non- repayment of the loan, while still apparently able to gamble, was reason enough for avoiding Turgenev.
Yet had he not been lucky that day, there is a suggestion in Anna's diary that he might even have approached him for another loan. In the s as the young, lionised author of 4 Frank: The debt was only finally repaid in , and even then only after much misunderstanding as to the sum actually lent. The psychological blow administered by this lampoon cannot be overesti- mated. It not only led to his break with Turgenev and the Belinsky circle, but later provided artistic inspiration for a positive reversal of the poem's values - the assertion of the chivalric virtues of ingenuous spontaneity.
Yet it is at this point that their relations became more complicated. Dostoevsky's first visit to Baden was the occasion of renewed awkardness. Selberg , Oslo The Stir of Liberation, , London He handed the manuscript back to Turgenev unread. In part II of his notes the underground man comments on Russian Romantic writers: At the same time the values of Turgenev' s earlier realistic mode do not escape ridicule.
Gute Argumente
Before this incident Shubin had defined his view of a hero: Although Shubin is loth to see Insarov in quite these terms, his cari- cature sculpture of him reduces his bull-like pretensions to those of a ram: Baden-Baden Revisited 11 bull-like characteristics of the man of action, capable: Thus before the showdown at Baden, the sniping had already been re- newed.
There had been much discussion in the Russian press about the number of Russians abroad", and both works in different ways address this problem. Both authors present Russians in the German spa towns as comic and grotesque, and as appearing so in the eyes of the Germans. The behaviour of the Russians and the rumours about them cause Dostoevsky's Oberkellner to exclaim 'Diese Russen! Turgenev's novel is obviously highly polemical.
In both these works Dostoevsky had presented the Crystal Palace in London and its associated Great Exhibition in an extremely negative light. The words of the narrator: The femme fatale of Dostoevsky's story is called Polina although her real name appears to be Praskov'ia.
Her prototype is Apollinariia Suslova rather than Pauline Viardot. Dostoevsky' s underground man had launched a constant attack against rationality. For Potugin it is man's chief virtue: The 'knight of the sad countenance' of Turgenev's and Nekrasov's poem has been turned into a positive figure and associated with another poem about a similar knight - In his letter to Maikov, Dostoevsky claims that Turgenev had told him that these words on the insignificance for the world of Russia's elimination from it were the chief idea of his novel XXVIII ii: Potugin's contention that the samovar was not even a Russian in- vention IX: See note in V: Moreover in formulating his conception of the character Dostoevsky refers to Don Quixote and symbolically introduces the novel into his text.
At the novel's end, as Litvinov takes his train journey from Europe to Russia, he looks out of the window and sees merely smoke, which he equates with the insubstantiality of Russian life. On Myshkin' s journey from Europe to Russia, everything is focused inwards. It is a quest for the inner life. An oblique response at this more personal Cf. In his letter to Maikov Dostoevskii writes: Tur- genev's infatuation with Pauline Viardot and his friendship with her hus- band was a subject of general gossip.
The 'eternal husband' of the story acts in this play, but is discharged by his wife from the role of the 'husband': In Dostoevsky's next novel we encounter another female-dominated figure, and in a liaison unsanctified by marriage. Admittedly the portrait of Stepan Trofimovich, the hanger on in the household of Varvara Pet- rovna, owes more to Granovsky, as Dostoevsky's drafts for the novel make plain, yet the sexual motif does not belong here, and in such state- ments as: Stepan Trofimovich is obviously parodying Potugin's views on the elimination of Russia.
Like Turgenev' s hero he also rejects the emphasis placed on the Russian peas- ant and peasant culture X: C'est le mot X: Stepan Trofimovich, of course, is not Turgenev. That dubious honour is reserved for the writer Karmazinov, whose very name suggests him as a 'red', a sympathiser of the nihilists. Petr Verkhovensky borrows the manuscript of Merci, only to return it to Karmazinov unread.
Turgenev recognised himself in Karmazinov, but did not resume the polemics. Indeed, earlier, he had asserted that such non-artistic matters were beneath his talent.
This Turgenevan theme of 'fathers and children' would condition Dostoevsky' s last two novels: Reconciliation with Turgenev came at the end of Dostoevsky' s life on the occasion of the Pushkin celebrations in Turgenev and Dostoev- sky both made speeches, but that of Dostoevsky was by far the better re- ceived. In the general ac- claim after Dostoevsky' s bravura performance. Turgenev and Dostoevsky exchanged embraces. Pushkin, the reconciler of Russian disparities, had worked his magic - for the moment at least. An Examina- tion of the Major Novels, Cambridge In reaction to criticism of an operetta, written in collaboration with Pauline Viardot, staged in Baden [XI: The love of Hamsun for Russia is only parallelled by the love of Russia for Hamsun.
Small wonder, then, that Hamsun at present is more read in Russia than he has ever been in his native country. Signifi- cantly, when the Norwegians discussed after World War II how to punish Hamsun for his Nazi sympathies, the Soviet foreign minister Vjaceslav Molotov, according to a widespread anecdote, indignantly replied: His words about "Krotkaja" are among the best characterizations ever given of a work by Dostoevskij: A tiny little book.
But it is too great for us all, too unattainably great. Let everyone acknowledge that". There is every indication that the Norwe- gian writer immediately felt his kinship with his Russian colleague: A Writer's Life, London , p. Francis Bull et al.: Norsk litteraturhistorie, femte bind, Oslo , p.
Dostoevski] and Hamsun at the Roulette Table 83 that time he had Perov's famous portrait of the writer hanging over his bed and often started his working days by reading from The Brothers Karamazov. Hamsun and Dostoevskij were spiritually kindred souls, who had many things in common, not only in literature, but also in life.
Hamsun's literary connections with the great Russian have been dealt with by oth- ers. Here I shall briefly outline the importance of gambling in both men's lives. In this field, too, Hamsun, both in his life and in his works, eagerly followed Dostoevskij' s example, to an extent that even led to accusations of plagiarism. Dostoevskij became acquainted with roulette in Germany during his first trip abroad in He then had beginner's luck and added several hundred francs to his travel fund.
The next year, as he entered the splen- did Cursaal in Wiesbaden, he was determined to continue his success, no matter how much he longed for his girlfriend Polina. Methodically, Dostoevskij went to work. For four days, he studied the game and the players, and very quickly came to the conclusion that only he could master this game. It was really so pathetically simple - all that was required was that one play systematically and keep a cool head.
But how can the person who knows this secret find the strength and understanding to use it well?
Other Books in This Series
If one could only discover a "tendency" in the roulette wheel - if. The fact that roulette has no system, that each round is independent of all the other rounds be- fore and after, that in the long run the bank must win - all this was for Dotoevskij the empty talk of anxious souls with no head for figures. Nor did he listen to the warnings of fellow gamblers. Instead, he put his faith in all kinds of gambling handbooks that called the casinos the "German California" and instructed players on how to "ruin the banks" through "fail-proof systems".
But as a gambler Dostoevskij must have felt that he had signed a contract with fate that said that sooner or later perseverance would pay off. Against every reasonable theory, he insisted that one had to be able to make a profit from roulette. He was to suffer terrible indignities because of this error, and yet he held 84 Geir Kjetsaa to the belief until the very end. As late as in A Raw Youth, he expressed the conviction that "One must win at gambling if one can only remain calm and calculating" ibid.
In several biographies, Dostoevski's gambling affliction has been explained as a result of his poverty and his desire to win a large fortune. But actually the desire to win was secondary. Dostoevski's behaviour con- firms the accuracy of this statement. And once he had become swept up in the game for the game's sake, only losing could satisfy him. Like most real gamblers, Dostoevskij was possessed by an unconscious desire to lose and punish himself by losing.
This he achieved to an extraordinary degree each time he played himself "to the skin", as he was wont to call it. A few weeks later, tortured by the unattainable Polina, Dostoevskij once again was driven to the casinos, and once again was sacrificed to what he called "the agitation of passion" op. He hoped to find in roulette all the satisfaction Polina denied him, and more. Like all gamblers he tried to rationalize his deeper motives - he needed money so badly! But in reality it was the game itself, its excitement, and most of all the unconscious need to lose, to hurt and punish himself that moved him to make ever bolder wagers.
But such bourgeois warnings were hardly enough to dampen Dostoevski's patho- logical obsession. Just when he had managed to net a profit of six hundred francs, he began to lose, and when he left the casino, he was three thousand francs poorer than when he ar- rived. He was shabbily attired and took every loss very hard, according to Prince Pavel Vjazemskij, who had the dubious pleasure of running into him among the rough and brazen crowd of gamblers.
Surely it was scenes like this that made him compare the hell of the casino with the bath scene in The House of the Dead. And yet he comforted himself in a letter to his sister-in-law: The situation did not improve when Dostoevskij a few years later be- gan to take his young wife Anna along with him to the gambling table. Soon the losses came and, with them, the humiliating journey from pawn- Dostoevski] and Hamsun at the Roulette Table 85 broker to pawnbroker.
Her wedding rings were the first to go; they were followed by her wedding presents and finally her clothes and underwear. Anna's memoirs make painful reading, and there is no doubt that she was a major support for her husband when his passion for gambling was at its height. But when later on she claimed that he was suddenly cured of the sickness for which she herself says there was no cure, she was proba- bly overdoing it. True, Dostoevskij wrote from Wiesbaden: Anna, my dear guardian angel!
A great happiness has fallen to my lot. The ugly dream which has tormented me for nearly ten years is now at an end. For ten years, or ever since I was overwhelmed with debts after the death of my brother. I have followed this dream of a great win with seriousness and passion. But now it is all over! This was the last time!
Moreover, we know that he himself always denied that the aim of gambling was to win and that he "cracked'' every time he went near a casino. In actual fact, his passion for gambling went much deeper than this. It was part of his need to suffer and punish himself, and it could not simply be eliminated by an effort of will. When scholars sentimentally maintain that Dostoevskij was so fond of his family that he even stopped gambling, they simply fall into an error. His abstention from gambling during his later cures in Germany is not to be attributed to any "recovery", but rather to the fact that all the gambling halls in Germany were shut down by Bismarck in late and early They were not reopened until Hitler came to power.
Happily, at that time old Hamsun had long since exchanged the game of roulette for the less dangerous game of poker. But when he was younger, he was just as mad about roulette as his great literary teacher. However, whereas Dostoevskij usually played with small change, Ham- sun had thousands of francs in his hands, - at least for a while. In the autumn of Hamsun suddenly disappeared from Kristiania to Ostend in Belgium, where the casinos were not yet closed.
Once again he had been stricken by one of his attacks of gambling. And this time it was serious.
- Foursome!
- La poésie et les Dieux (Angoisse) (French Edition);
- ?
Being in debt, he had robbed his dear wife Bergljot of most of her inheritance, the huge sum of 13, francs, in a desperate attempt to improve his financial situation. Instead, he lost it all in a few days. Shortly afterwards he writes a despairing letter to his Finnish friend Wentzel Hagelstam, imploring him to organize a rescue operation among his friends: Since I came here, I have gone through a mental disorder so unbelievable that I cannot bear up against it, and my soul is totally thrown out of its balance" Knut Ham- suns brev , Oslo , p.
When he finally did so a few days afterwards, he was as ashamed in front of his Bergljot as Dostoevskij used to be in front of his Anja. Desperately, with tears in his eyes, he tried to arouse her compassion: But I do not dare to do so anymore, since I am so crushed" op.
Poorly dressed in four shirts, since he could not afford to buy a new overcoat, he was now going to try his luck at the casino of Namur. Per- haps Bergljot would like to join him and be his consultant? Yes, why did they not play together? At any rate she must help him in her thoughts, for now his whole future was at stake: When he fi- nally got the money from his Finnish friends to cover his Ostend debt, he was already over head and ears in debt to a new casino in Namur.
Fol- lowing Dostoevskij, Hamsun now compared the casino to "hell" and swore that he would never play again, never ever! The lack of real punishment from their wives was also an issue of much concern to the writers. So Hamsun would prefer it if Bergljot scolded his fatal tendency to immoderation, or called him "a dog or a spendthrift" op. Obviously, both writers were hopeless maso- chists who wanted to be relieved of their guilty conscience through a se- vere penalty. But whereas Dostoevskij sought help in religion, Hamsun rejected the idea of returning home as the Prodigal Son: Since God had given him this weakness for the roulette.
He was also to pay! To Hamsun roulette was not only a tool for painful losses and a guilty conscience. His addiction to the game was also instrumental in the charge that had been brought out against him a few years before for having pla- giarized Dostoevskij' s novel The Gambler in his story "Hazard" True, Hollaender did not directly call him a plagarist, but he did request the favour of a reply from Hamsun.
Even more embarrassing was the attack launched by the Norwegain newspaper Morgenbladet a few weeks afterwards. The front-page article, written by the editor in chief Nils Vogt, was frankly entitled "A piece of plagiarism" Et Plagiat and had a form that must have brought Hamsun Dostoevski] and Hamsun at the Roulette Table 87 much distress: Not surprisingly, Hamsun flatly rejected the accusation of plagiarism. He had never called "Hazard" "a new story", he said. He then immediately asked the chief editor Olav Thommessen of Verdens gang to return his manuscript, but unfortunately too late: Hamsun's story was serialized three weeks after Dostoevski's novel came out and caused much distress to the author.
It gave him a feeling of being pursued and was also damaging to his reputation. However, judging from modern standards, it would be a mistake to regard Hamsun's little sketch as a piece of plagiarism. Indeed, the argu- mentation for conscious plagiarism does not hold water. In our book on the so-called plagiarism of Sholokhov in The Quiet Don we have demon- strated how strict the definition of plagiarism ought to be. Unless we want to make unjust accusations against a great number of the best authors in the world for "borrowing", plagiarism must be defined as "taking or closely imitating the language and thoughts of another author and repre- senting them as one's own".
Experience shows that a wider definition of plagiarism in the direction of "borrowing" e. For his little sketch Hamsun has evidently used chapters of The Gambler. To prevent this would have been impossible, given the similarity of the situations and the game played. Quite another matter is the fact that the story was rather weak and later found a more satisfactory form in his story "Father and Son".
In my opinion, then, we are rather faced with a product of apprentice- ship which necessarily shows Dostoevskij's influence. But Hamsun, while still echoing Dostoevskij in many of his future works, soon began to demonstrate his independence. To paraphrase a Swedish colleague 4: The man who had once been a weak copy of Dostoevskij returns with his new novels to influence a whole generation of Russian writers. Nietzsche liest Dostojewskij I. Selbstdarstellung, Gesammelte Werke, hg. Die psychologischen Errungenschaften Nietzsches, Leipzig In seinem Tagebuch lesen wir: Nietzsche und das XX.
Allzumenschliches I, Vorrede I. Ich danke Herrn Prof. An Stefan Zweig am Oktober und an Marie Bonaparte am 5. Nietzsche liest Dostojewski] 91 Man nennt mich einen Psychologen. Das ist nicht richtig. September macht Nietzsche seinen Verleger C. G Naumann auf die Besprechung aufmerksam und am September nennt er in einem Brief an Paul Deussen den Text: September an den Verleger E.