However, he opposed any development of a supranational Europe , favouring a Europe of sovereign nations. De Gaulle openly criticised the United States intervention in Vietnam and the " exorbitant privilege " of the United States dollar. Although reelected President in , he appeared likely to lose power amid widespread protests by students and workers in May , but survived the crisis and won an election with an increased majority in the National Assembly.
De Gaulle resigned in after losing a referendum in which he proposed more decentralisation. Many French political parties and figures claim a Gaullist legacy; several streets and monuments in France were dedicated to his memory after his death. De Gaulle was born in the industrial region of Lille in the Nord department , the third of five children. He was raised in a devoutly Catholic and traditional family. His father, Henri de Gaulle , was a professor of history and literature at a Jesuit college who eventually founded his own school.
Henri de Gaulle came from a long line of parliamentary gentry from Normandy and Burgundy.
50 questions sur le métier de sage-femme: Législation et exercice professionnel
As part of the French nobility, the de Gaulle family had lost most of its land in the French Revolution , which it opposed. De Gaulle's father encouraged historical and philosophical debate between his children at mealtimes, and through his encouragement, de Gaulle grew familiar with French history from an early age. Struck by his mother's tale of how she cried as a child when she heard of the French capitulation to the Germans at Sedan in , he developed a keen interest in military strategy.
He was also influenced by his uncle, also named Charles de Gaulle , who was a historian and passionate Celticist who wrote books and pamphlets advocating the union of the Welsh, Scots, Irish, and Bretons into one people. His grandfather Julien-Philippe was also a historian, and his grandmother Josephine-Marie wrote poems which impassioned his Christian faith. By the time he was ten he was reading medieval history. De Gaulle began writing in his early teens, especially poetry, and later his family paid for a composition, a one-act play in verse about a traveller, to be privately published.
In addition to the German philosophers Nietzsche , Kant , and Goethe , he read the works of the ancient Greeks especially Plato and the prose of the romanticist poet Chateaubriand. France during de Gaulle's teenage years was a divided society, with many developments which were unwelcome to the de Gaulle family: Henri de Gaulle came to be a supporter of Dreyfus, but was less concerned with his innocence per se than with the disgrace which the army had brought onto itself.
De Gaulle was not an outstanding pupil until his mid-teens, but from July he worked harder at school as he focused on winning a place to train as an army officer at the military academy, Saint-Cyr. It was used extensively for strike-breaking and there were fewer than applicants for St Cyr in , down from 2, at the turn of the century. De Gaulle won a place at St Cyr in His class ranking was mediocre th out of entrants , but he was relatively young and this was his first attempt at the exam.
Accordingly, in October , de Gaulle enlisted for four years, as required, rather than the normal two year term for conscripts in the 33rd Infantry Regiment of the French Army , based at Arras. His company commander declined to promote him to sergeant, the usual rank for a potential officer, commenting that the young man clearly felt that nothing less than Constable of France would be good enough for him. De Gaulle took up his place at St Cyr in October By the end of his first year he had risen to 45th place. In , he graduated 13th in his class [15] and his passing-out report noted that he was a gifted cadet who would undoubtedly make an excellent officer.
The future Marshal Alphonse Juin passed out first in the class, although the two do not appear to have been close friends at the time. Preferring to serve in France rather than the distant overseas colonies, in October he rejoined the 33rd Infantry Regiment as a sous-lieutenant second lieutenant. He later wrote in his memoirs: De Gaulle stressed how Maurice de Saxe had banned volley fire, how French armies of the Napoleonic period had relied on infantry column attack, and how French military power had declined in the nineteenth century because of — supposedly — excessive concentration on firepower e.
He also appears to have accepted the then fashionable lesson drawn from the recent Russo-Japanese War , of how bayonet charges by Japanese infantry with high morale had succeeded in the face of enemy firepower. De Gaulle was promoted to first lieutenant in October When war finally broke out in France in early August , the 33rd Regiment, considered one of the best fighting units in France, was immediately thrown into checking the German advance at Dinant.
However, the French Fifth Army commander, General Charles Lanrezac , remained wed to 19th-century battle tactics, throwing his units into pointless bayonet charges with bugles and full colours flying against the German artillery, incurring heavy losses. As a platoon commander, de Gaulle was involved in fierce fighting from the outset. He received his baptism of fire 15 August and was among the first to be wounded, receiving a bullet in the knee at the Battle of Dinant. However, there is no contemporary evidence that he understood the importance of artillery in modern warfare.
Instead, in his writing at the time, he criticised the "overrapid" offensive, the inadequacy of French generals, and the "slowness of the English troops". He rejoined his regiment in October, as commander of the 7th company. Many of his former comrades were already dead.
In December he became regimental adjutant. De Gaulle's unit gained recognition for repeatedly crawling out into no man's land to listen to the conversations of the enemy in their trenches, and the information brought back was so valuable that on 18 January he received the Croix de Guerre. On 10 February he was promoted to captain, initially on probation. On 3 September his rank of captain became permanent. In late October, returning from leave, he returned to command of 10th company again.
As a company commander at Douaumont during the Battle of Verdun on 2 March , while leading a charge to try to break out of a position which had become surrounded by the enemy, he received a bayonet wound to the left thigh after being stunned by a shell and was captured after passing out from the effects of poison gas. He was one of the few survivors of his battalion. The circumstances of his capture would later become a subject of debate as anti-Gaullists rumored that he had actually surrendered, a claim de Gaulle nonchalantly dismissed.
De Gaulle spent 32 months in a German prisoner of war camp, where his treatment was satisfactory. In captivity, de Gaulle read German newspapers he had learned German at school and spent a summer vacation in Germany and gave talks on his view of the course of the conflict to fellow prisoners. While a prisoner of war, de Gaulle wrote his first book, Discorde chez l'ennemi The Enemy's House Divided , analysing the issues and divisions within the German forces. The book was published in De Gaulle made five unsuccessful escape attempts, [13] and was moved to a higher-security facility and punished on his return with long periods of solitary confinement and with the withdrawal of privileges such as newspapers and tobacco.
He attempted escape by hiding in a laundry basket, digging a tunnel, digging a hole through a wall, and even posing as a nurse to fool his guards. As the war neared its end, he grew depressed that he was playing no part in the victory, but despite his efforts, he remained in captivity until the armistice.
On 1 December , three weeks later, he returned to his father's house in the Dordogne to be reunited with his three brothers, who had all served in the army and survived the war. After the armistice, de Gaulle served with the staff of the French Military Mission to Poland as an instructor of Poland's infantry during its war with communist Russia — He distinguished himself in operations near the River Zbrucz , with the rank of major in the Polish army, and won Poland's highest military decoration, the Virtuti Militari.
De Gaulle returned to France, where he became a lecturer in military history at St Cyr. He was already a powerful speaker, after practice as a prisoner of war. Here he clashed with his instructor Colonel Moyrand by arguing for tactics based on circumstances rather than doctrine, and after an exercise in which he had played the role of commander, he refused to answer a question about supplies, replying "de minimis non curat praetor" "a leader does not concern himself with trivia" before ordering the responsible officer to answer Moyrand.
He obtained respectable, but not outstanding grades — 15 or so out of 20 — on many of his assessments. Moyrand wrote in his final report that he was "an intelligent, cultured and serious-minded officer; has brilliance and talent" but criticised him for not deriving as much benefit from the course as he should have done, and for his arrogance: Having entered 33rd out of , he graduated in 52nd place, with a grade of assez bien "good enough".
He was posted to Mainz to help supervise supplies of food and equipment for the French Army of Occupation. De Gaulle's book La Discorde chez l'ennemi had appeared in March In March he published an essay on the use of tactics according to circumstances, a deliberate gesture in defiance of Moyrand. In de Gaulle began to cultivate Joseph Paul-Boncour , his first political patron.
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This was a popular topic because of the Maginot Line which was then being planned, but his argument was quite nuanced: These later formed the basis for his book The Edge of the Sword Many of the officers in the audience were his seniors, who had taught and examined him only a few years earlier. After spending twelve years as a captain, a normal period, de Gaulle was promoted to commandant major on 25 September De Gaulle trained his men hard a river crossing exercise of the freezing Moselle River at night was vetoed by his commanding general.
An observer wrote of de Gaulle at this time that although he encouraged young officers, "his ego In the winter of —, thirty soldiers "not counting Annamese " died from so-called "German flu", seven of them from de Gaulle's battalion. The Allied occupation of the Rhineland was coming to an end, and de Gaulle's battalion was due to be disbanded, although the decision was later rescinded after he had moved to his next posting.
He was promoted to lieutenant-colonel in December and appointed Head of the Third Section operations. His service at SGDN gave him six years' experience of the interface between army planning and government, enabling him to take on ministerial responsibilities in After studying arrangements in the US, Italy, and Belgium, de Gaulle drafted a bill for the organisation of the country in time of war. He made a presentation about his bill to the CHEM. The bill passed the Chamber of Deputies but failed in the Senate.
Mayer thought that although wars were still bound to happen, it was "obsolete" for civilised countries to threaten or wage war on one another as they had in previous centuries. He had a low opinion of the quality of French generals, and was a critic of the Maginot Line and a proponent of mechanised warfare. The book imagined tanks driving around the country like cavalry. De Gaulle's mentor Emile Mayer was somewhat more prophetic than he was about the future importance of air power on the battlefield.
Such an army would both compensate for France's population shortage, and be an efficient tool to enforce international law, particularly the Treaty of Versailles , which forbade Germany from rearming. He also thought it would be a precursor to a deeper national reorganisation, and wrote that "a master has to make his appearance [ Only copies were sold in France; the claim that thousands of copies were sold in Germany [17] is thought to be an exaggeration. The book attracted praise across the political spectrum, apart from the hard left who were committed to the Republican ideal of a citizen army.
Reynaud first invited him to meet him on 5 December The de Gaulle family were very private. There is no evidence that he was tempted by fascism, and there is little evidence of his views either on domestic upheavals in and or the many foreign policy crises of the decade. He interceded with his political patron Reynaud, who showed his record to the Minister of War Edouard Daladier. Daladier, who was an enthusiast for rearmament with modern weapons, ensured that his name was entered onto the promotion list for the following year.
In General Bineau, who had taught him at St Cyr, wrote on his report on his lectureship at CHEM that he was highly able and suitable for high command in the future, but that he hid his attributes under "a cold and lofty attitude". De Gaulle attracted public attention by leading a parade of 80 tanks into the Place d'Armes at Metz, in his command tank " Austerlitz ". By now de Gaulle was beginning to be a well-known figure, known as "Colonel Motor s ". On 12 September he attacked at Bitche , simultaneously with the Saar Offensive. At the start of October Reynaud asked for a staff posting under de Gaulle, but in the event remained at his post as Minister of Finance.
De Gaulle's tanks were inspected by President Lebrun , who was impressed, but regretted that it was too late to implement his ideas. Daladier, Prime Minister at the time, was too busy to read it. In late-February , Reynaud told de Gaulle that he had been earmarked for command of an armoured division as soon as one became available. When Reynaud became prime minister in March he was reliant on Daladier's backing, so the job went instead to the politician Paul Baudouin.
In late-March de Gaulle was told by Reynaud that he would be given command of the 4th Armoured Division , due to form by 15 May. The Germans attacked the West on 10 May. General Georges told him it was his chance to implement his ideas. De Gaulle commandeered some retreating cavalry and artillery units and also received an extra half-brigade, one of whose battalions included some heavy B1 bis tanks.
The attack at Montcornet , a key road junction near Laon, began around Outnumbered and without air support, he lost 23 of his 90 vehicles to mines, anti-tank weapons, or Stukas. On 18 May he was reinforced by two fresh regiments of armoured cavalry, bringing his strength up to vehicles. He attacked again on 19 May and his forces were once again devastated by German Stukas and artillery.
He ignored orders from General Georges to withdraw, and in the early afternoon demanded two more divisions from Touchon, who refused his request. Nevertheless, it was one of the few successes the French enjoyed while suffering defeats elsewhere across the country. He delayed his retreat until 20 May.
On 21 May, at the request of propaganda officers, he gave a talk on French radio about his recent attack. Despite being compulsorily retired as a colonel on 22 June see below he would wear the uniform of a brigadier-general for the rest of his life. On 28—29 May, de Gaulle attacked the German bridgehead south of the Somme at Abbeville , taking around German prisoners in the last attempt to cut an escape route for the Allied forces falling back on Dunkirk. The future General Paul Huard, who served under de Gaulle at this time, recorded how he would often stand on a piece of high ground, keeping other officers literally at six yards' distance, subjecting his subordinates to harsh criticism and taking all decisions autocratically himself, behaviour consistent with his later conduct as a political leader.
Lacouture points out that for all his undoubted energy and physical courage there is no evidence in his brief period of command that he possessed the "hunter's eye" of the great battlefield commander, and that not a single one of his officers joined him in London, although some joined the Resistance in France. De Gaulle's rank of brigadier-general became effective on 1 June After a visit to his tailor to be fitted for his general's uniform, he visited Reynaud, who appears to have offered him a government job for the first time, then the commander-in-chief Maxime Weygand , who congratulated him on saving France's honour and asked him for his advice.
He made the same suggestion to Reynaud. He asked for an English-speaking aide and Geoffroy Chodron de Courcel was given the job. On 8 June de Gaulle visited Weygand, who believed it was "the end" and that after France was defeated Britain would also soon sue for peace. He hoped that after an armistice the Germans would allow him to retain enough of a French Army to "maintain order" in France.
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He gave a "despairing laugh" when de Gaulle suggested fighting on. It was thought that half a million men could be evacuated to French North Africa , provided the British and French navies and air forces coordinated their efforts. In his memoirs de Gaulle mentioned his support for the proposal to continue the war from French North Africa, but at the time he was more in favour of the plan to form a " redoubt " in Brittany than he later admitted. Italy entered the war on 10 June. That day de Gaulle was present at two meetings with Weygand he only mentions one in his memoirs , one at the defence committee and a second where Weygand barged into Reynaud's office and demanded an armistice.
When Weygand asked de Gaulle, who wanted to carry on fighting, if he had "anything to suggest", de Gaulle replied that it was the government's job to give orders, not to make suggestions. De Gaulle wanted Paris to be stubbornly defended by de Lattre , but instead it was declared an open city. De Gaulle's fighting spirit made a strong impression on the British.
He then returned to attend a cabinet meeting, at which it was clear that there was a growing movement for an armistice, and which decided that the government should move to Bordeaux rather than de Gaulle's preference for Quimper in Brittany. This time few other major French figures were present apart from Reynaud and Baudoin.
He was an hour late, and his account is not reliable. Reynaud demanded that France be released from the agreement which he had made with Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain in March , so that France could seek an armistice. De Gaulle wrote that Churchill was sympathetic to France seeking an armistice, provided that an agreement was reached about what was to happen to the French fleet.
This claim was later made by apologists for the Vichy Regime, e. However, is not supported by other eyewitnesses Churchill himself, Roland de Margerie , Spears who agree that Churchill said that he "understood" the French action but that he did not agree with it. De Gaulle was dissuaded from resigning by the Interior Minister Georges Mandel , who argued that the war was only just beginning, and that de Gaulle needed to keep his reputation unsullied.
De Gaulle arrived at Bordeaux on 14 June, and was given a new mission to go to London to discuss the potential evacuation to North Africa. He had a brief meeting with Admiral Darlan about the potential role of the French Navy. Next morning no aircraft could be found so he had to drive to Brittany, where he visited his wife and daughters, and his aged mother whom he never saw again, as she died in July , before taking a boat to Plymouth he asked the skipper if he would be willing to carry on the war under British flag , where he arrived on 16 June.
He ordered the boat Pasteur , with a cargo of munitions, to be diverted to a British port, which caused some members of the French Government to call for him to be put on trial. He telephoned Reynaud — they were cut off during the conversation and had to resume later — with the news that the British had agreed. De Gaulle was now in imminent danger of arrest. Reynaud still had control of secret government funds until the handover of power the next day.
It has been suggested that he ordered de Gaulle to go to London, but no written evidence has ever been found to confirm this. Georges Mandel also refused to come. The escape was hair-raising, with Spears' aide having to run to the hangar at the last minute to fetch a rope to tie on the luggage. Jean Laurent brought , gold francs in secret funds provided to him by Reynaud. De Gaulle landed at Heston Airport soon after He saw Churchill at around Duff Cooper Minister of Information had an advance copy of the text of the address, to which there were no objections.
The cabinet eventually agreed after individual lobbying, as indicated by a handwritten amendment to the cabinet minutes. De Gaulle's Appeal of 18 June exhorted the French people not to be demoralized and to continue to resist the occupation of France. He also — apparently on his own initiative — declared that he would broadcast again the next day.
Few listened to it, although it was published in some newspapers in metropolitan mainland France. The speech was largely aimed at French soldiers who were then in Britain after being evacuated from Norway and Dunkirk ; most showed no interest in fighting for de Gaulle's Free French Forces and were repatriated back to France to become German prisoners of war.
In his next broadcast on 19 June de Gaulle denied the legitimacy of the government at Bordeaux. The British Foreign Office protested to Churchill. De Gaulle also tried, largely in vain, to attract the support of French forces in the French Empire.
After the armistice was signed on 21 June , de Gaulle spoke at Jean Monnet broke with de Gaulle on 23 June, as he thought his appeal was "too personal" and went too far, and that French opinion would not rally to a man who was seen to be operating from British soil. De Gaulle broadcast again on 24 June. The armistice took effect from He claimed erroneously that the French fleet was to be handed over to the Germans.
De Gaulle had little success in attracting the support of major figures.
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Roland de Margerie stayed in France despite his opposition to the armistice. At this time de Gaulle's followers consisted of a secretary of limited competence, three colonels, a dozen captains, a famous law professor Cassin , and three battalions of legionnaires who had agreed to stay in Britain and fight for him. For a time the New Hebrides were the only French colony to back de Gaulle. He considered withdrawing to Canada to live as a private citizen and waited five days before broadcasting.
Spears called on de Gaulle on 5 July and found him "astonishingly objective" and acknowledging that it was the right thing from the British point of view. Spears reported to Churchill that de Gaulle had shown "a splendid dignity". In his broadcast of 8 July he spoke of the "pain and anger" caused by the attack and that it was a "hateful tragedy not a glorious battle", but that one day the enemy would have used the ships against England or the French Empire, and that the defeat of England would mean "bondage forever" for France.
They will either go down both together or both together they will win". On Bastille Day 14 July de Gaulle led a group of between and sailors to lay a wreath at the statue of Ferdinand Foch at Grosvenor Gardens. His family had left Brittany the other ship which left at the same time was sunk and lived for a time at Petts Wood. As his daughter Anne was terrified by the Blitz they moved to Ellesmere in Shropshire, a four-hour journey from London and where de Gaulle was only able to visit them once a month.
His wife and daughter also lived for a time in the country at Rodinghead House, Little Gaddesden , in Hertfordshire, 45 kilometres 28 miles from central London. A separate letter guaranteed the territorial integrity of the French Empire. General Georges Catroux , Governor of French Indo-China which was increasingly coming under Japan's thumb , disapproved of the armistice and congratulated de Gaulle, whom he had known for many years.
He was sacked by Vichy and arrived in London on 31 August; de Gaulle had gone to Dakar, but they met in Chad four weeks later. He was the most senior military figure to defect to the Free French. On average he spoke on BBC radio three times a month. This was the dawn of the Vichy regime.
De Gaulle's subsequent speeches reached many parts of the territories under the Vichy regime, helping to rally the French resistance movement and earning him much popularity amongst the French people and soldiers. De Gaulle began by making frequent use of "I" and "me" in his war-time speeches, but over time, their use declined.
However, claims that de Gaulle was surrounded by Cagoulards , Royalists and other right-wing extremists are untrue.
Meaning of "sage" in the French dictionary
Many leading figures of the Free French and the Resistance, e. A newspaper France was also soon set up. De Gaulle organised the Free French Forces and the Allies gave increasing support and recognition to de Gaulle's efforts. It was an all-encompassing coalition of resistance forces, ranging from conservative Catholics like himself to communists. By early , the "Fighting French" movement, as it was now called, gained rapidly in power and influence; it overcame Vichy in Syria and Lebanon, adding to its base.
Dealing with the French communists was a delicate issue, for they were under Moscow's control and the USSR was friendly with Germany in —41 as a result of the Molotov—Ribbentrop Pact. De Gaulle's policy then became one of friendship directly with Moscow, but Stalin showed little interest.
It is the only Western allied formation to have fought until the end of the war in the East. In his dealings with the British and Americans both referred to as the "Anglo-Saxons", in de Gaulle's parlance , he always insisted on retaining full freedom of action on behalf of France and was constantly on the verge of losing the Allies' support.
Some writers have sought to deny that there was deep and mutual antipathy between de Gaulle and British and American political leaders. De Gaulle personally had ambivalent feelings about Britain, possibly in part because of childhood memories of the Fashoda Incident. Never did the Anglo-Saxons really treat us as real allies. They never consulted us, government to government, on any of their provisions. For political purpose or by convenience, they sought to use the French forces for their own goals, as if these forces belonged to them, alleging that they had provided weapons to them [ I deliberately adopted a stiffened and hardened attitude In addition, de Gaulle harboured a suspicion of the British in particular, believing that they were seeking to seize France's colonial possessions in the Levant.
Winston Churchill was often frustrated at what he perceived as de Gaulle's patriotic arrogance, but also wrote of his "immense admiration" for him during the early days of his British exile. Although their relationship later became strained, Churchill tried to explain the reasons for de Gaulle's behaviour in the second volume of his history of World War II:. He felt it was essential to his position before the French people that he should maintain a proud and haughty demeanour towards " perfidious Albion ", although in exile, dependent upon our protection and dwelling in our midst.
He had to be rude to the British to prove to French eyes that he was not a British puppet. He certainly carried out this policy with perseverance. De Gaulle described his adversarial relationship with Churchill in these words: Churchill gets angry when he is wrong.
We are angry at each other much of the time. De Gaulle said that the French people thought he was a reincarnation of Joan of Arc, to which Churchill replied that the English had had to burn the last one. After his initial support, Churchill, emboldened by American antipathy to the French general, urged his War Cabinet to remove de Gaulle as leader of the French resistance.
But the War Cabinet warned Churchill that a precipitate break with de Gaulle would have a disastrous effect on the whole resistance movement. By autumn , Churchill had to acknowledge that de Gaulle had won the struggle for leadership of Free France. De Gaulle's relations with Washington were even more strained. President Roosevelt for a long time refused to recognize de Gaulle as the representative of France, insisting on negotiations with the Vichy government.
At the Casablanca Conference , Roosevelt forced de Gaulle to cooperate with Giraud, but de Gaulle was considered as the undisputed leader of the Resistance by the French people and Giraud was progressively deprived of his political and military roles. British and Soviet allies were outraged that the US president unilaterally recognised the new government of a former enemy before de Gaulle's one and both recognised the French government in retaliation, forcing Roosevelt to recognise de Gaulle in late , [] but Roosevelt managed to exclude de Gaulle from the Yalta Conference.
Synonyms and antonyms of sage in the French dictionary of synonyms. Examples of use in the French literature, quotes and news about sage. Si tu es sage , ne le dis pas et n'en montre pas les raisons, car on dira que tu veux tromper. Le sage fait son deuil de sa mort. La vraie sagesse est de ne pas sembler sage. Martine Cuirblanc, Katy Neirault, Rien ne va plus pour Sophie: Job satisfaction, occupational medicine, Occupational Health Services, occupational physicians, Tunisia.
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