Between the spheres of Saturn and Mars there was the sphere of Jupiter; due to its intermediate position between the excesses of cold and hot, Jupiter was considered to be moderate and therefore, benign. The Sun hot and dry like Mars, but it was not excessive, because its heat was moderated by the sequence of the seasons. Venus was equally benign, regardless of its proximity to the Sun, because its heat was balanced by the moist exuding from Earth. In spite of its proximity to Earth, Mercury was dry due to its swiftness, which made it prevented the moist to adhere.
These attributions can be found in Ptolemy, who establishes a connection between the planets and the elements, enhancing their effects on the weather: The good or bad quality of each planet is therefore determined by their good or bad effects in weather and consequently in agriculture. The planets and the luminaries90 Tetrabiblos pp. Mars, god of war, is associated with battles; Mercury, god of commerce, is associated with merchants Some parts were abridged. The original passages can be found in pp. In the Middle East, the planets were also related to the gods, and their qualities were, in general terms, similar to those derived from Classical mythology.
Nevertheless, the mythological association explains some of the attributions, but not all. They refer to the same concepts, but in different terms. The signs The signs are segments of the Zodiac, which is an imaginary circle surrounding the Earth. This circle is generated from the apparent movement of the Sun around the Earth during the course of the year. The Zodiac has four primary points of division: A new season begins when the Sun crosses the correspondent point.
Each season is further divided into three parts, corresponding to the beginning, the middle and the ending phases. The division of the Zodiac into four seasons and each season into three parts, generates twelve segments, corresponding to the twelve signs. The first three signs signal the spring: Aries, which marks the beginning of the season, Taurus, which corresponds to its culmination, and Gemini, which signals its end.
The signs for the summer are Cancer, Leo, and Virgo; followed by those of the autumn: Libra, Scorpio, and Sagittarius and finally those of winter: Capricorn, Aquarius and Pisces. The Signs94 Ruler Tetrabiblos pp. Ptolemy addresses the signs from the perspective of their relation to the season of the year; Ragel focuses mainly on their relation with the four elements the other attributes appear scattered along his book.
Zacuto synthesizes both contributions, relating each sign with an element which in its turn is composed by two qualities and with a motion moveable, fixed or common. Ptolemy calls equinoctial to Aries and Libra, and solstitial to Cancer and Capricorn; Zacuto uses the term moveable Ragel connects the signs to the elements and omits this point. But in spite of the different designations, they both relate the signs to the beginning of the four seasons.
The fixed signs mark the middle of the season, when the weather has stabilized in the typical conditions of that particular time of year. The common or double-bodied signs sometimes also called bi-corporeal or mutable represent the time when the seasons change; they are double because the weather has both the characteristics of the current season and of the one to come. Each sign is also associated with an element, and always in the same order: To the first sign is attributed fire, to the next earth, then air, then water, and so on.
Thus, the first sign, Aries, belongs to the fire element; followed by Taurus, related to earth, Gemini to the air, Cancer to water and so on. The planets were not all equally powerful in all the twelve signs. The power of each planet in a given sign was determined by a system of planetary dignities or strengths. This system had been developed throughout the centuries and becoming increasingly more complex. In the medieval period there were five types of planetary dignity that is, five different ways for a planet to attain power: It is common to find tables of the dignities in astrological books.
For instance, Zacuto mentions exaltations and rulerships The astrological houses98 Like the Zodiac, also local space is divided in twelve parts, called the houses This division takes as reference four points: East, were the celestial bodies rise, South, where they culminate that is, were they reach the highest altitude in relation to the horizon , West, where they set, and North, were they reach their lowest point below the horizon.
These points divide the sky in four areas or quadrants , which in turn are divided into three parts each beginning, middle and end , thus obtaining the twelve houses. His house has a set of attributes related to an area or activity, or an aspect of life. Ali ben Ragel; 11th century Abraham Zacuto; 16th century pp. Already in antiquity there was an in-going discussion about whether the better system, and eventually, unequal house systems were developed.
Ptolemy is very sparse in his descriptions, whilst the later authors offer a more detailed explanation. Also, the names he attributes to the houses clearly have a pagan origin, which obviously does not appear in the later works. Their attributions derive from earlier authors, other than Ptolemy. For instance, if Mars, the planet of the battles, was placed in the 11th house, it would imply that the adventures, recognition and good fame represented by that house, would be obtained through martial activities, like battles and war.
The astrological chart For practical purposes, the astrologer annotated the positions of the planets their placement in a sign and a house , in a diagram called astrological chart or figure. This was a map of the planetary positions, a sort of celestial equivalent to a geographical map. It is generally a squared figure, divided in twelve parts, representing the twelve houses. In each space, or house, is annotated the degree of the sign occupying the house. If any planets are placed in the house, they are represented by their glyph, along with the zodiacal degree in which they are positioned.
These charts would serve any of the four branches of astrology: Astrological rules The combination of these three referentials — planets, signs and houses — according to certain rules, provides the astrological interpretation. These rules developed throughout the ages, from the simplicity of direct observation, to the complexity of a personal horoscope, as in the medieval period. It is worth noting that the planetary positions and their interrelation were not the only factors to take in account: It was also a demanding one, as the requests for astrological advice included a wide range of topics, from personal health to politics, from meteorology which included agriculture and economy to diplomacy and war.
The medieval court astrologers were the natural heirs of ancient traditions from the Middle East the Chaldeans, the Persians, the Jews and the Arabs. The Iberian Peninsula the Arabic al- Andalus was particularly active in terms of cultural transfers. Astrology was one of the disciples that benefited the most from it, both in the technical and the philosophical aspects. Astrology brought profuse rewards to its practitioners, both in the material and in the social aspects.
Their services were generously paid by their noble patrons, and their social status also improved. Some Portuguese court astrologers even received the equivalent to a nobility title, with the honors and the lands that come with it. In the Portuguese court, astrology was often associated with other correlate activities: Astrology was frequently associated with the medical practice, and most astrologers were also physicians. Jews and converts had a key position in these processes, since their multilingualism made them first-class translators. Essential to the medical practice was the theory of the four elements, and their correspondent temperaments.
According to it, everything in the Cosmos — objects, plants, animals and Man — had a unique combination of these elements, which in the case of Man was represented in the astrological chart. To accomplish this, there was an extensive system of correlations between signs and planets with parts of the body and with specific illnesses.
The zodiacal or melothesic man is probably the most recognizable of these correspondence systems. In this system the signs where related to specific areas of the body, in general terms: They establish a correlation between the signs and parts of the bodies, they serve various medical purposes, namely the choice of favorable moments for medical interventions surgery, bleeding, etc. This was determined mainly by the passage of the Moon trough the signs, because it was believed that this passage would induce the affluence of blood to the correspondent body part.
Zacuto says, quoting Ptolemy: Also, the position of the Moon in certain signs could favor the elimination of specific undesired humors: This passage reveals the complexity of the astrological medicine: For example, cholera, a hot and dry humour with an affinity with the element fire, was purged when the Moon was in one of the three fire signs Aries, Leo and Sagittarius.
The same principle is applied to the other three humours. The complexity of the system goes even further, as there are exceptions to be taken into account. For instance, the Moon in Capricorn a sign of the element Earth should not be selected to treat the corresponding element melancholy. This is probably because in the astrological system of planetary strength, the Moon in Capricorn is considered to be weak. Another example of this complexity is evident when Zacuto relates the position of the Moon with that of other planets. In medieval astrology there are five aspects: Trines and sextiles are considered to provide beneficial relations between the planets; squares and oppositions are harmful.
The effects of the conjunctions also vary according to the two planets involved. The astrological interpretation combines the aspect and the natures of the planets. New Moon conjunction and Full Moon opposition , which are considered harmful to the medical practice. Through these factors, the physician determined the condition of the patient, the development of the disease and the best time to apply the remedies.
The natal chart was a diagnostic tool, along with the standard physical assessment. It revealed the forces and weaknesses of the individual — the diseases he would be prone to due to his temperament. The interrogations would also be used to scrutinize the origins and development of a disease, as well as the possibilities of cure. The time when the first symptoms appeared if known would also provide information regarding the evolution of the disease. For surgery and the administration of remedies, it would be chosen elected the best astrological moments. Additionally, the general tendencies of the weather in a given region were determined through mundane astrology.
Some seasons were considered to be more adequate to certain medical procedures; some were more likely to induce specific diseases spring increased blood flow, summer enhanced cholera, autumn, melancholy and winter, phlegm. One of the better examples of social elevation trough counseling with extensive use of astrology is the Negro family, a lineage of Jewish noblemen who lived in the Portuguese court for nine generations The cooperation of this family to the Portuguese crown is documented since the first king, Afonso Henriques c.
In his incursions towards the South attempting to expand his territory, Afonso encountered the taifas, the small Islamic kingdoms that resulted from the dismantlement of Al-Andalus. Most of the sovereigns of these taifas were sworn enemies of the Christians, but some were willing to forge occasional alliances with them, in order to gain new allies against the other taifas. To face his many enemies, he decided to forge an alliance with Afonso Henriques. He sent as emissary his Jewish counsellor, Yahia ben Yahia, a learned man and a warrior, and he managed to establish a solid alliance with Afonso Henriques.
For a period of about years years in Portugal in the Middle Ages, several Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula struggled to recuperate the territories occupied by the Muslims in the from the Muslim Al-Andalus the Iberian Peninsula. Arabic word meaning flag; it refers to the small kingdoms which emerged after the shattering of powers in Al-Andalus.
As a reward for his military efforts, Afonso Henriques gave him three villages: Unhos, Frielas and Aldeia dos Negros He also authorized him to use the title of Dom, as a Christian nobleman would do. And, also as a nobleman, he conferred him the right to add the most important village, Aldeia dos Negros literally Village of the Blacks , to his name.
From then on, he was known as Dom Yahia Negro This surname, together with the respective title and the lands, passed on to his descendants for several generations. The rabbi had to have significant knowledge of the planetary movements, in order to perform his religious functions. He had to execute or at least supervise complex mathematical calculations, in order to determine the exact position of the Sun and the Moon in the Zodiac, to establish the beginning of the Jewish calendar and festivities Astrology was related to this practice, due to its direct relationship with the calendar and astronomical calculation.
Yahia remained at the service of king Afonso until is death, around Their success within the court, in spite of the religious differences, can be attributed to their political proficiency and their specialized skills. Trough the Arabs, they inherited the knowledge of classical world — of which astrology took a crucial part — and brought it into the Christian society. Some historians affirm that Yahia adopted it because that was already the name of the village A-dos-Negros , while others say that the village only got this designation when it was donated to Yahia, because he was known as el Negro the Black.
C and he had the title of ha-Nasi the prince. He was also related to the powerful Abravanel family. As the Reconquista slowed down after the first four reigns the services provided by the Negro family to the crown gradually expanded, to other fields of expertise. Along with the military services which remained until as late as the 15th century , they also started do offer their knowledge as counsellors, physicians, treasurers and minstrels.
Many of his descendants were directly connected to the astrological practice. In , again for political reasons, he moved to the kingdom of Castile and offered his professional skills to king Henrique II Again, his knowledge granted him prestige, and he eventually became the leader of the Jewish community of Toledo. The position as treasurer was possibly attained due to his ability with numbers. Gedaliah ben Shlomo ibn Yahia c. Quite remarkably, he achieved these honors before the age of He was highly respected and received many benefits, including the authorization to possess a mule and the respective apparel, for the period of three years in a document from In , he succeeded his father in the positions of court physician and chief rabbi.
He studied philosophy at Estudos Gerais the equivalent of the university , together with the Christian students. The episode is addressed in this work, in p Los hermanos, carreras cortas, la ley e el saber de la le Hermanos, caminos breves y ley e sciencia 4th House pg. Los padres, las fines de las cosas, cosas cubiertas escondidas El padre, las possessiones el fin de todas las cosas 5th House pg. Fijos, presentes e los gozos; conuidamientos, los beveres Hijos y plazeres y los vestidos y los vicios th 6 House Las enfermedades y servidores y esclavos y ganado meudo e sciencias pg.
Las enfermedades, los catiuos, los sieruos, biestas pequenas 7th House pg. Las mugieres, casamientos, aduersarios Las mugeres y las batallas y los enemigos publicos e los companeros 8th House pg. Muerte e matanza, pobreza e medos, herencias de los muertos Cosas perdidas y la muerte y herencias th 9 House pg. Alteza e rey e regno e sennorio e la nobreza, buena fama, El rreyno y senorio y la honrra y el oficio y la madre mestrias, las mugeres de los padres th 11 House pg.
This science is of great value to the works of men, for it reveals the kind of power the heavens hold over them and over all things corruptible. The analysis of the books from the libraries allows a better understanding of the cultural environment of the royal court, and also reveal some of the sources of astrological information available at the time. The personal writings offer an overview on the private thoughts and intellectual interests of their respective authors.
As these sources belong to different categories, the information therein will be addressed differently, according to its source. Although different in nature, these documents provide a glance into the practical application of astrological concepts in every-day life. As to the chronicles presented in this work, they were written in the 15th century, even those addressing earlier periods He was only six years old when he was nominated Grand Master of the Order of Avis, a title that would became the designation of the new dynasty — the House of Avis Being an educated man, he was appreciative of the classical culture, and he often referred to it in his writings.
He also praised — quite enthusiastically — the pleasures of outdoor activities, particularly horse riding and hunting. LXIX , pp. Algumas notas, eHumanista, Vol. In Calafate, Pedro dir. LXIX, Lisbon, , pp. Its name and arms were related to the dynasty of Avis, which ruled Portugal between and In , few months after becoming king, he signed the Treaty of Windsor to assure mutual aid between Portugal an England, and sealed the pact by marrying Philippa of Lancaster the first daughter of Duke John of Gaunt, first duke of Lancaster. It was a political marriage, but it turned out to be very productive from the cultural point of view.
Geoffrey Chaucer, who wrote extensively about astrology also had an crucial role in her life, both as mentor and arguably her favorite teacher and as close friend of her father, ultimately connected to the Lancasters by family ties: As queen of Portugal, she had at least one court astrologer, Yehuda Negro Addressed in chapter 3. They benefited from the cultural interests of both parents and received a rich and varied education. Astrology, present in both cultures, would be a natural part of their education.
King Duarte , the elder son, was inclined to philosophy and deep thought. His personal library had more than 80 titles, both in Latin and in vernacular, covering all kinds of topics and revealing a vivid and eclectic curiosity Some of the notes from this book were turned into Livro dos Conselhos de D. Duarte Livro da Cartuxa. Data provided by Nascimento, Aires A. True, King Duarte mentions astrology several times in his writings, but he expresses concerns about its practice and its philosophical principles, as it would be explored further in this chapter.
Most especially, he seems to struggle with the concepts of fate and free will and his opinions reflect his perplexity Prince Pedro , the second son, studied the Liberal Arts, and he was obviously familiar with astrology. The topic is mentioned in a letter written by his brother Duarte, were it is clear that they disagree on this matter In the coronation of his nephew, Afonso V, he asked the court astrologer to choose the best moment for the ceremony Pedro was killed during the confrontation.
Prince Henrique , the third Infante prince of Avis, is perhaps the most difficult to know from the historical point of view, due to the successive layers of myth attached to his image. Even his common designation, Henry the Navigator, is misleading, because he seldom navigated — he supervised the maritime enterprises, but he was not a sailor himself. He is the only prince whose astrological chart is interpreted in a chronicle providing therefore an example of the official version of astrology, and also the only one who is explicitly mentioned as a practitioner of astrology.
It may also have prompted his interest for astrology, which was usual in princes or noblemen of his time The course on Liberal Arts was instituted in She married Phillip the Good , Duke of Burgundy it was her first marriage and his third , and became one of the most powerful women of the 15th century. His uncle, prince Pedro, ruled the kingdom until from After his death c. This book also includes a notebook with horoscopes of major figures from Burgundian and French politics, namely John the Fearless p. This document presented in Appendix I. In this section we shall concentrate on the corpus of astrological writings of the royal court.
These books are either directly cited by the princes of Avis in their writings, or mentioned in the inventories of their libraries. Tetrabiblos, Claudius Ptolemy The main source of astrological information in the medieval period is the book Tetrabiblos, written by Claudius Ptolemy. Foi no reinado de D. Manuel conservaram e aumentaram. Duarte Livro da Cartuxa , pp. Although establishing a clear distinction between these two fields of study, Ptolemy describes them as complementary parts of the study of the stars: Tetrabiblos is, as the title shows, a compendium of four books.
The first explains the basic principles of astrology, the second addresses mundane astrology, and the other two describe the practice of natal astrology. Based on this differentiation, he warns against false astrologers; he considers that the unworthy practitioners are detrimental to astrology: He is concerned with those who proclaim they can predict everything, and points out that though prediction is possible, not everything can be predicted.
By establishing limits to prediction, Ptolemy distances astrology further away from the less reputed practices, and places it firmly into the realm of natural sciences. Then he draws a correspondence between astrology and another respected form of knowledge — philosophy — also plagued by bad practitioners. In both cases, he claims that the bad practitioners should be blamed, not the practice itself. Ptolemy was probably aware of the criticism toward the predictive facet of astrology, and defends vigorously his astrological work.
Nonetheless, Tetrabiblos attained great recognition and became one of the most influential treatises of Late Antiquity. Because of it, astrology came forward as a more systematic form of knowledge This codex only contains the first five parts of the total of eight. There are two other manuscripts, containing the 6th Ms.
The colophon of book VII states: He explores extensively the four main branches of astrology nativities, mundane, horary and elections , offering an overview of the astrological practices in the medieval period. The first three parts of the book address the foundations of astrology and the horary practice, the fourth and the fifth parts explain the rules for interpreting nativities.
The sixth and seventh parts which are not translated into Castilian , concern prediction and elections, respectively. The eighth part, already translated, explains mundane astrology The horary section is in itself a valuable source of information about the role of astrology in medieval society. It encompasses questions about all the practical aspects of life, namely economy commerce, money, agriculture diplomacy banquets, petitions, messages personal relationships marriage, sexuality, children and fidelity and health duration of a disease and possibilities of recovery.
In Book 1, chapter , for instance, the author explains as astrology can help to predict the outcome of a banquet. The art of entertaining and pleasing the guests was a crucial aspect of social life, as it allowed the founding of new alliances and the renewal of long-standing ties. The author explains the astrological rules to discover in advance the details of a given banquet, as well as it outcome Book explores the topic of marriage. It addresses questions such as the wealth of the bride, her fidelity, her fertility and even her virginity. On the sensitive topic of sexuality, the questions are very open, and sometimes even blunt: The type of interrogations and the way they are addressed, suggest that astrology was mainly made by man and to male costumers.
Book focuses on the attainment of dignities and honors. The interrogations cover topics such as the possibility of obtaining from the king the rulership of given territory, how long will that dignity last and how much wealth it will bring. All these examples demonstrate the pervasiveness of astrology in medieval life, and also offer a rich source for the study of medieval mentalities and every-day life. Astrology was made accessible not only to academic students, but to anyone who could read — hence his popularity. Sacrobosco, an English clergyman, was a teacher at the University of Paris in the 13th century.
He wrote three books: Algorismus, Computus and Tratactus de Sphera. They all disclose the fundamentals of the new teachings stemming from the Toledan School of Translators. He quotes Ptolemy among other authors and disseminates the Arabic numeration system. The book describes the Earth as a sphere and tries to offer rational, non-religious explanations to natural phenomena.
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For instance, it refers to the eclipse that supposedly occurred during the Passion of Christ as miraculous, not because of any theological inference, but because it could not happen, according to natural laws Jewish Passover always occurs during Full Moon, and solar eclipses only occur in the New Moon With the impulse of maritime discoveries, it came to be the main book for the instruction of pilots and sailors — it was concise, direct, practical, and did not require complex neither an advanced mathematic thought nor a philosophical mind.
Sacrobosco understands that the Earth seems to be flat, but in reality is round, and presents a complete array of reasons to explain that apparent discrepancy. As the solar eclipses can only occur during the New Moon, it is impossible to witness a solar eclipse during Pessach the only eclipse possible would be a lunar eclipse. In the words of Sacrobosco: Miraculous - From the aforesaid it is also evident that, when the sun was eclipsed during the Passion and the same Passion occurred at full moon, that eclipse was not natural — nay, it was miraculous and contrary to nature, since a solar eclipse ought to occur at new moon or thereabouts.
On which account Dionysius the Areopagite is reported to have said during the same Passion, "Either the God of nature suffers, or the mechanism of the universe is dissolved. This book will be addressed in pp. Some historians argue that this book is Livro de Magika Book of Magic , a compilation of astrology extensively inspired on Tetrabiblos Segredo dos segredos, Pseudo-Aristotle Segredo dos Segredos, also referred to as Secretum or Secreta secretorum the Secret of Secrets , is the translation of the Arabic Kitab sirr al-asrar Book of the science of government, on the good ordering of statecraft.
II , Coimbra. The identity of the author, Juan Gil, has not been established yet. Luciano Pereira da Silva in op. MS of Biblioteca Columbina, Seville. The Portuguese version of this book mistakenly attributed by some to Prince Henrique the Navigator , is the long or oriental version of the text, corresponding to the complete Latin version from the 13th century.
For an English edition, as well as eight other versions of the Kitab sirr al-asrar, refer to M. Although not a book about astrology, Segredo dos Segredos, presents it as an indispensable asset for a king, due to its precautionary value: In short, if the king can predict the adversities, he can also take the appropriate precautions and prepare the remedies to avoid, or at least diminish, the problems. The book also presents some specific guidelines for the application of mundane astrology to a situation of war.
For instance, he says: His work suggests that astrological practice remained essentially the same throughout the medieval period and beyond. Born in Salamanca, in , Zacuto taught astronomy at the universities of Salamanca, Zaragoza and Cartagena. As the Spanish laws agains the Jews became increasingly harsh, he took refuge in Lisbon, Portugal, were he was well received.
He died in in Jerusalem, or, according to some reports, in in Damascus. Almanach perpetuum celestium motuum The Almanach perpetuum celestium motuum Perpetual almanach of the celestial movement , also called Tabule tabularum celestium motuum astronomi Zacuti nec non stellarum fixarum longitudinem ac latitudinem ad motus veritatem mira diligentia reducte ac in principio canones ordinatisime incipiunt felice sidere, was written between the years of and Tratado breve en las ynfluencias del cielo The book Tratado breve en las ynfluencias del cielo Concise treatise on the celestial influences was ordered by Dom Juan de Zuniga Pimentel in It is organized in five parts: He considers astrology a natural complement of medicine, and attibutes it a prophylactic function.
Health is achieved trough the application of preventive actions before the problem has appeared. The copy from Biblioteca Columbina, in Sevilha, presents the designation: De los eclipses del Sol y la Luna De los eclipses del Sol y la Luna Of the eclipses of the Sun and the Moon is a compilation of teachings from several authors It is an appendix of Tratado breve but, as it addresses a different branch of astrology, it will be treated separately.
It interprets the solar and lunar eclipses in each of the twelve signs, the interaction between the eclipses and the planets and the affect of eclipses in individual horoscopes. It is an incursion into mundane astrology, which deals with the collective effects of the eclipses, and an attempt to connect mundane and individual astrology. Other books of astrological relevance: A complete study of all the books containing astrological references would be out of the scope of this work. Among the authors who were a reference for the astrological practice we can count the names of Abraham ben Ezra The Beginning of Wisdom ; Gossouin de Metz Image du Monde ; Bartholamaeus Anglicus De proprietatibus rerum It addresses theology and astrology, as well as the natural sciences as understood in On the Properties of Soul and Body: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, Although it cannot be considered a systematic philosophy, the pedagogical literature produced in the court of Avis expresses the main philosophical views of that period, and represents a major impulse for the Portuguese culture.
The book addresses the main aspects of this activity: Astrology, mentioned in Book 1, Chapter , seems somewhat unexpected in this context. It points out that there are several factors to be taken in account, namely the humidity or dryness of the trail. At first glance, the interpretation of the trail is simple and straightforward: Then, somewhat unexpectedly, the king mentions a book on astronomy written by Juan Gil, to whom he refers in admiring terms He dedicates several pages to this matter, addressing different topics: This is the first reference in Portuguese literature to the distinction between natura naturans God and natura naturada the Creation, Nature.
He briefly ponders on the several theories about the origin of the winds, and then focuses on the practical aspects of the subject, for these are relevant for the explanation that will follow. This topic seems to be unconnected to the rest of the chapter, for he never mentions it again. Then he enumerates the qualities of each planet cold to Saturn, dry to Mars, hot to the Sun, hot and moist to Venus, cold and dry to Mercury, cold and moist do the Moon and moves on to another topic — the motion of the seven planets concisely describing the geocentric aristotelian—ptolemaic model of the Universe Instead of enumerating all the planetary cycles, he mentions only three: He seems to expect the reader to know, or at least to deduce, the cycles of the planets in the intermediary spheres.
To differentiate the Sun and the Moon from the other planets, these were called luminaries for they emitted light.
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In fact, the difference is more formal than real, because ultimately the signs are also related to the cardinal points, through the elements. Ordering the sources in chronological order, it becomes clear that the concept increased in complexity. Zacuto synthesizes these concepts, attributing to each sign a pair of qualities and the corresponding element. He attributes not only one but two qualities to each element: The interaction between signs and planets, according to the theory of the elements, is relevant to the proper understanding of the meteorological conditions.
The king explains that if a planet, moving along its natural path, enters a sign of similar qualities for instance, a hot planet entering a hot sign its power increases; but if it moves into a sign of opposite qualities i. Correlating the astrological principles and the quality of the winds Finally, the king returns to his initial topic — boar hunting He explains that the trails left by the boar can be altered by the different winds, as some bring moist and others, dryness Excessive dryness in the wind caused, for instance, by the placement of the Sun, which is hot and dry, in a dry sign can make the trail dry out rapidly, therefore making it look older than it really is.
In these cases, the hunt-scout would mistakenly conclude that the boar would be further away than it really was. On the other hand, the presence of moist planets like for instance Venus in a moist sign ads moist to the wind, allowing the trail to keep its humidity and, consequently, to look more recent than it really is. This would also lead the scout to a wrong conclusion, as they would consider the boar to be closer than he really was. It is unclear if he means that all these conditions must occur simultaneously, or if one is enough to induce the dry weather. At this point, the reason why astrology was mentioned is finally revealed: He intends to provide the hunters with the means to interpret the different planetary positions regarding their meteorological consequences.
The correct assessment of the qualities of the dominant winds dry, moist, hot or cold , will allow them to understand the trails correctly and by doing so, they will be able to determine the exact distance covered by the boars. According to this widespread concept, the constellation of Aries the ram should resemble the shape of a ram, Taurus the bull like a bull, Gemini the twin brothers like two twin children, and so on.
It is interesting to see that the astrologers have been trying to clarify this confusion for centuries, with little results. Sacrobosco starts by describing the Zodiac in the same terms as the king: But then he ads an alternative explanation: The book also includes astronomical and astrological references, grouped four main topics: He mentions the day, the time and the place of birth — the three references that make possible to calculate an astrological chart He presents the data of all his children except of princes Joana, who was born six months after his death Many years later, her astrological chart was calculated by Regionontanus This image shows two charts: The latter is calculated for September 16th , 2 hours before sunrise; Duarte mentions September 18th, 3 hours after midnight.
Probably the earliest known horoscope of a Portuguese royal figure.
It is based on the assumption that the degree of the ascendant at birth coincides with the position of the Moon in the moment of conception that is, the sexual act. One would suppose that Regiomontanus received his data from Leonor herself, so this would be the most reliable. This would be a to big an error for any astrologer to make. These are the only data which reference to the exact time the events occurred. The study of this data provides an example of how astrological documents may assist historical research. Armindo de Sousa refers that this mention in Duarte, Livro dos Conselhos might have been written not by king Duarte, but by a biographer or a compiler.
Sousa, Armindo de, A morte de D. For propagandistic purposes, it would have been more favorable to choose the 14th, for it coincided with the day of the Battle of Aljubarrota , a decisive event for the second dynasty. Perhaps king Duarte is counting the beginning of the year in March as the astrological year, connected to the natural cycles, would begin in the Spring Equinox , but the Pope would have still died before the eclipse, and therefore his death could not be a consequence of the event. Meteorology and calendar calculation King Duarte establishes a correlation between the conditions of the New Moon and the weather: Se a ponta mais alta for escura significa chuyva.
Se for escura no meo significa que fara nom tempo quando for chea. If the upper point [of the crescent] is dark, it means rains. If it glitters like water [when] stirred by the oars, it means that soon there will be a storm at the sea. If it is dark in the middle, it means that the weather will be good by the Full Moon.
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He also writes down the opinion of the court astrologer, Master Guedelha, about the hour of sunset in he longest and shortest days of the year: E em o meo Setembro outro tanto quasy. E o mais pequeno dia do ano he aos quinze dias de dezembro hua hora e. At the 15th of March, dusk is at one hour and a third and a bit more. In the middle of September it is similar.
And [in the] the shortest day of the year [dusk] is at 15th December, [at] one hour and one third. Master Guedelha is determining, respectively, the Summer solstice June, the longest day , the Spring equinox March , the Autumn equinox September and the Winter solstice December, the shortest day. These calculations were indispensable for the practice of mundane astrology, because of the need to calculate the seasonal ingresses. For more information about this family, refer to pp. He is referring to the solar or natural hours 12 hours for the day, measured from sunrise to sunset, and 12 for the night, from sunset to sunrise.
As they depend on the Sun, their length varies along the year; for instance, the hours of the day are longer in Summer and shorter in Winter. A poem with astrological references Another important passage is the poem O que tomamos da Terra What we seize from the Earth Duarte mentions several factors, which can contribute to personal traits: The term is related with the natural tendency indicated in the chart.
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King Duarte is presenting the several factors capable of determining personal traits and conditions The astrological factor is one among many — not by far the only one. For Ptolemy, the special qualities are constituted by a complex set of circumstances, which join together at birth. Those circumstances interact with the characteristics depicted by the horoscope, reinforcing some and moderating others.
So, if two individuals born with similar horoscopes are raised in different environments, their personal traits although similar at birth may develop differently. To explain this, Ptolemy uses the metaphor of similar seeds developing in different grounds: As to Ptolemy, he considers the ambient the horoscope as the most relevant factor in a hierarchy of influences, for it determines all others: The acknowledgement of these influences is crucial to determine the power of astrology, and therefore to avoid disproportionate demands upon it.
By establishing limits, Ptolemy seeks again to place astrology within the field of natural sciences, while king Duarte is above all concerned with the position of the Church towards this matter, not with the validity of astrology by itself. Duarte, Leal Conselheiro, p.
A moral sermon on the power of astrology In a letter written by king Duarte to his younger brother, Fernando, about their brother Pedro, astrology is used to make his point in a family argument Duarte disapproves of this attitude. He had suffered a similar contrariety by the time of his own wedding, one year earlier Therefore, he expects his brother Pedro to do the same.
He writes to Fernando: When Pedro went away from the kingdom for three years, Fernando was left in charge of his lands. The context of this sentence is not easy to grasp. Duarte seems to be explaining that he could not meet Pedro, who was returning from a long journey abroad, because he was stalled by mundane issues the valet and the plague and not due to any hindrance of astrological nature.
He is possibly disputing some remark from Pedro about their failure to meet. Duarte rejects this possibility and, since he started talking about astrology a contentious issue between the two brothers , he seizes the opportunity to criticize Pedro. For Zurara and Ptolemy , dominance is a form of knowledge. Eager to dismiss Pedro, Duarte closes his arguments with a demolishing sentence: He urges Pedro to stay away from astrological matters: He expects Pedro to comply; but, as we will see, Pedro did not follow his advice.
This term, and the variant astrolomia is often found in medieval documents. But the intended reader is not just his wife but also the courtesans, most especially, those who are willing to live a virtuous life The book also includes personal content, which for king Duarte represents no apparent contradiction: He gives priority to his personal experience, apparently discarding, or at least diminishing, the scholastic tradition.
Concerning astrology, the book includes five main topics: He wants to offer a first-hand account of his own melancholic illness what could nowadays be called a depression and, most importantly, he wants to share his own recovery, back to joy and health. Then he goes on to explain how he succumbed to melancholy, due to excessive work, accumulated with emotional losses and, above all, his persistent fear of death because of the plague Aged twenty-two and accustomed to a life of hunting and courtly pursuits, the burden of state business made his heart joyless and filled him with groundless imaginings.
After about ten months of continuing to work hard with no outward change in him , plague broke out in Lisbon; Duarte became ill and was convinced that he was going to die. Focusing on the reality of her death allowed Duarte to stop thinking so much about his own, and he gradually began to recover. And this was the beginning of my healing, because as I suffered [because of] her, I stopped suffering [for] myself.
King Duarte claims that his commitment to his mother made him overcome his fears of death — again an example of the power of will and self-discipline overcoming the personal limitations, a concept very dear to him. However, this spontaneous recovery from melancholic illness was not at all commonplace. In most cases, the melancholic humor had to be counterbalanced by the appropriate remedies. As melancholy burdened the body with the cold and dry qualities, the physicians attempted to restore balance trough the judicious use of food and drink of the opposite nature.
Wine was considered a good antidote, if consumed with moderation. But King Duarte rejected this treatment, alleging that wine could never bring the perfect cure, for it was a mere subterfuge: In short, he relied more on self-discipline, healthy habits, and will power, than on remedies. These two ways of balancing the humor — will power and remedies — reflect two different attitudes: For him, these qualities seem to be somewhat adverse to astrology or at least to astrological determinism but for other authors, it is not necessarily so.
Determinism and free will King Duarte addresses the topic of astrology mainly in the context of the determinism-versus-free will debate In a chapter about the value of prudence, Duarte asserts his position against determinism, and particularly against the habit of asking the counsel of astrologers before making any decision. In this aspect, he specifically disagrees with the book Segredo dos Segredos, which appeals to the extensive use of astrological advice: To this, he replies: But even this pious obedience should not be blind, but modulated by personal judgement: Regarding astrology, his main concern seems to be the possibility of conflict between the rules of the church and the advices offered by astrologers.
These remarks refer to the practice of elective astrology the choice of the better hour , which can be a sign of prudence. The issue of determinism seems to trouble him, to the point of seeking advice from Diogo Afonso Mangancha. In other words — as long as the astrologers remains within the realm of natural astrology and of the general inclinations of men, his practice is licit and without sin.
Belief and disbelief Regarding astrology, Duarte again chooses a position of caution: In face of this unreliability, he chooses to rely on demonstration, that is, in what he can verify by his own senses, in other words — he demands first-hand proof. But he does not dismiss them as a whole, rather preferring an attitude of systematic doubt: He applies these stances to all the natural sciences in which astrology was included , and to all he recommends a cautious approach, neither accepting nor rejecting them without further proof.
This judicious consideration, however, does not apply to the ordinary forms of prediction, which he clearly rejects: He also warns against those who use astrological excuses to avoid hard work in order to attain their goals. Although he is not particularly favorable to either of them, he gives some credit to the first, and none to the latter.
Ptolemy, writing in the 2nd century, warns the reader against false astrologers, as we have seen Also king Alfonso X of Castile ordered that only those who had concluded their studies in astrology could predict the future by the stars; he forbade other forms of divination and even decreed the capital punishment for those who insisted on their practice. This position towards the various astrological practices is very similar to the one recommended, centuries later, by Diogo Afonso Mangancha The fracture within the astrological practices would expand in the following centuries; the Church intensified it, to the point of totally rejecting the natal and horary branches of the astrological practice at least officially , while it accepted the natural approach weather forecast and possibly elections.
Astrology as a natural science As in Ptolemy, the placement of astrology within the group of natural sciences confers it more credibility. It is the case of the plague, to which king Duarte attributes four causes: I, Lisbon, Caminho, , pp. He considers Man as a part of the sublunar world, therefore subjected to its contingencies: The way to achieve order in this corruptible world is to understand the changes in the celestial cycles: The planetary cycles are, ultimately, the key to maintain order in the sublunar world.
While Duarte considered incorrect, and perhaps impious, to make such choices as revealed by the episode of his own coronation , prince Pedro according to the chronicles , saw elective astrology as a wise application of free will. They are all closely connected to the dynasty of Avis, and in their writings they organized and developed the memories of the previous kings Regardless of their political affiliations, the chronicles stand as valid sources to understand the use of astrology as a political asset as a validating argument to the actions and decisions mentioned therein.
Although not a royal chronicle, it contains a relevant allusion to the theory of the temperaments relating astrology and medicine. The combined study of these sources — the books and writings presented in Part III, and now the chronicles — offers a more comprehensive understanding of the role of astrology in the court and in its practical application in everyday life. It is true, however, that there are some previous historiographic examples that can be said to foreshadow the emergence of the genre. Nevertheless, the conceptions of a feudal nobility are often superimposed here on what we may call the monarchic ideology.
An autodidact, he had a unique, vivid style. Valuing truth over all although he was at the service of the Avis dynasty , he tried to anchor his works on documental proof In his old age, he witnessed the beginning of Portugal's maritime expansion. He authored Chronicle of king Pedro I r. He mentions astrological occurrences on occasion, although not as often as his successor, Zurara. Pedro de Meneses ; Chronica do Conde D. He enjoys to display his erudition which he probably obtained later in life , by mentioning the leading classical, early Christian and medieval writers.
He was acquainted with some notable chronicles and romances of Europe and had studied Italian and Hispanic authors The depth of his astrological knowledge is debatable Pedro de Meneses, ed. The practical use of these tables is not direct; it requires some calculations, which suggests that Zurara might have had some mathematical skills or, alternatively, he could have asked some astrologer to calculate the positions.
On the other hand, he seems to be familiar with the basic astrological concepts, and he probably read the work of Ptolemy As an example of this lack of knowledge, he points out that Zurara does not mention the Ptolemaic theory on the sources of the Nile, although he addresses this topic It is possible that he had transcribed the notes of an astrologer, and that something was lost in the transcription. When it comes to astrology Zurara makes some mistakes, both in form and in content. Apart from the unnecessary display of knowledge on classical culture as for astrological purposes there was no need to mention Pollux, Castor and Leda — Gemini would suffice the sentence is partially wrong.
Though the Sun was indeed between the 5th and the 6th degree of Virgo in August 21st , the Moon was not in the first degree of Gemini. It was in Pisces, just starting its 3rd quarter, right after the Full Moon In fact, this configuration — Sun in Virgo and Moon in Gemini in its first quarter — can never happen, due to the natural sequence of the signs — Gemini, Cancer, Leo and Virgo.
This data on planetary positions, as well as all the other data of the same kind mentioned in this work, were obtained using the software Solar Fire, for astrological calculation. If the Sun is in Virgo, the Moon in the first quarter has to be in one of the signs following the on the Sun is in, that is, either in the end of Virgo, Libra, Scorpio or in the beginning of Sagittarius. Table 8 — The symbols for Gemini and Pisces Source: Although different, these symbols can be easily confused.
On the other hand, Zurara is sometimes unclear in his astrological interpretations. It is a waxing Moon, moving away from the New Moon that is, the conjunction to the Sun , and following the order of the signs counter- clockwise. On the other hand, if the Sun is again in Virgo, the Moon has to be is in its 3rd or 4th to be in Gemini. Well, while reinforcing this derogatory line of inquisitorial origin in the 20 th century, Medeiros adds some information to induce his readers to disregard the figure and the work of the "devil" Machiavelli.
Thus, he begins to list - quite imprecisely - a series of biographical and historiographical events, which the reader of the first translation of The prince could not help but infer. Even if Machiavelli was a "man" of great "intellectual penetration", his life supposedly consisted, to a significant degree, of "true failures":. Shortly after that, Medeiros begins to describe the historical context of the actions of the Florentine secretary, assuming that the Machiavellian "attitude" was of a simple "follower of orders".
The political fragmentation of the peninsula allowed foreign powers such as "France", "Spain", and the "Emperor" of the Holy Roman Empire to try expanding their respective territories and spheres of influence, to the detriment of the small Italian states that were unable to defend themselves against these strong armies. Along with the greed for territorial conquests of these monarchies, there was a parallel "internal uneasiness" of Italians, accustomed to politics involving fierce struggles between "partisan factions" and "groups of families".
The weakness of these "provinces", "so far apart in feeling" among themselves, and "republics" or "principalities" that were dominated by various intrigues would be emblematic of the immorality of each one, reducing politics to "poisoning" and "treacherous murders", derived mainly from personal ambitions. No one would be immune, observes Medeiros, to this way of interpreting politics: Moving on to describe the situation of Florence, for which Machiavelli worked, Medeiros recalls that the city tried to save the status of a rich "democratic republic" owing to its flourishing commercial activity.
For this very reason, it became a target of greed from "stronger neighbors". As for Machiavelli, his work on behalf of Florence as "secretary of the 'Council of Ten of Liberty and Peace'" and "head of the second chancellery" was hardly successful. As Medeiros points out, he had never received the honor of acting as an "ambassador".
In this very complex context, Machiavelli would become first a victim, then, a theorist of a specific way of doing politics, in which the "mission" of the Florentine Secretary with the "Countess Catherine Sforza" would be paradigmatic, according to Medeiros. About this mission, he says:. As Medeiros states, one "skill", which later was defined as "Machiavellian", inspired the disloyal behavior of the "Countess".
Machiavelli suffered from that "skill", with this being somewhat described later by the Florentine secretary in The prince. Machiavel sente logo a influencia seductora do caracter nitido do principe. When Machiavelli found himself impoverished and without political support, he could only devote to studies. It was in this predisposition, stresses Medeiros, a psychiatrist, that the Italian thinker wrote his works:. E' um episodio deprimente para o caracter de Machiavel, que se humilha vergonhosamente perante os inimigos.
Sem meios para viver na cidade, retira-se elle, com sua familia, para uma pequena propriedade que possuia nos arredores, em S. But the preface writer does not merely express his surprise with the "acclaim" received later by Machiavelli for The prince. He even "manipulates" his reader by stating:. Seu livro O Principe, ora traduzido, tinha um objectivo mesquinho. Machiavel se sentia sem recursos, no seu ostracismo. No fundo, tendo em vista agradar um soberano, Machiavel sustenta no Principe os methodos de se manter um governo pela autoridade.
By having as a real goal "to please a sovereign", the Florentine secretary, citing "numerous historical examples" and "cases he analyzed", would eventually come up with "general rules that constitute, as a whole, a manual of government by the use of force, violence and craftiness". Even though Medeiros was his detractor, he acknowledges - though only briefly suggesting the issue - that, for Machiavelli, "Freedom" was not less important:. To the concession made to a Machiavelli mindful of "the techniques for exercising both Authority and Freedom", Medeiros soon contrasts his skepticism about the "sincerity" of the Florentine secretary:.
In the early s, the first translation into Portuguese of The prince ends up being offered to the Brazilian "people" as an instrument of political involvement and struggle against the difficult contingent situation. But, indeed, it confirmed the inquisitorial interpretation transmitted over the centuries, including by the monolingual dictionaries, about Machiavelli and his work. This shows that still in the first half of the 20 th century, Il principe did not cease to impose, in the words of Rodolfo De Mattei, its "imperiosa suggestione".
Calvino Filho fez bem em traduzir O Principe. Elle vem mostrar a muita gente como a humanidade pouco mudou nestes quatro seculos. Machiavel nasceu em 3 de Maio de e escreveu o Principe pouco depois de Returning to Benedetto Croce, it is difficult to understand if, when the Italian philosopher spoke of the "discontent" provoked by the "many books, Italian and foreign about Machiavelli, he could also be referring to the first translation of The prince by Calvino Filho and to its "Preface". But, as we have seen, one of those three interpretations, which are wrong according to Croce, can also be found in Medeiros' preface.
In this view, Machiavelli would have put "in writing the customs of his time". This move, however, compels us to extend the search beyond national borders. According to the allusive logic adopted by Medeiros, his preface can be rightly interpreted equally as a response from part of the Brazilian intelligentsia , who was concerned at the political level about Vargas' authoritarianism, and perhaps as a reaction to that Principe col preludio al Machiavelli La questione del Machiavelli", Quaderni della "Critica", n.
Whether he was a secretary or disseminator, it seems to me that he is not just a thinker but neither just a writer, who, for being an interpreter of an era, should exercise a critical action over it, that is, to understand it, analyze it and qualify it" translated from Portuguese. A third interpretation considers him a fervent Italian patriot who committed all the energies of his mind and all the passion of his heart to the greatness and salvation of the homeland; and that is true, but in this he had many and most noble peers, while in the mental attitude that was truly his, Machiavelli was the only and the first; to such an extent that he had many conscious or unconscious disciples, even among those who disowned him or believed to disown him" translated from Portuguese.
Alessandro Campi, op cit. Bentes Monteiro; Sandra Bagno eds. This is the revised and expanded edition of the original book from See Edoardo Susmel; Duilio Susmel eds. Mauricio de Medeiros was born in the city of Rio de Janeiro on July 14, Mauricio de Medeiros died in Rio de Janeiro on June 23, One of his brothers, Medeiros e Albuquerque, was a relevant and prominent figure in Brazilian letters, having held the presidency of the Brazilian Academy of Letters in the s.
He took courses of medical specialization in France, in and After getting involved in politics, he was elected state representative in the State of Rio de Janeiro in and Congressman in He was elected to Congress again in and In , he was appointed head of the Brazilian delegation to the First International Psychiatry Congress.
He also participated in the congresses of Neuropathology held in Rome and London in the years and , respectively.
Synonyms and antonyms of sico in the Portuguese dictionary of synonyms
The current rulers fail, for sure, to have a revolutionary program, a revolutionary ideal, a revolutionary action to develop. But all of this is so inconsistent that so far nothing concrete and palpable was externalized, besides the scrutinies on administrative acts, and it has not been possible to clear even some of the major characters of the Revolution itself from these responsibilities.
Little by little, the same mistakes of its legal predecessors are being repeated. One could say we live under the same cult of incompetence that characterizes the presidential regime. They are being replaced by relatives of the powerful men of today, installed in registries, in the round places, in the sinecures. To moralize the administration? It is not in one generation that one achieves such goal, when 40 years of presidentialism, a regime in which the politicians that rule the country now used to participate, created the addictive habit of the luxury of power and its use for the benefit of the privileged classes and individuals that receive the resources of the Government.
And what about the interventions in the states, where the scandalous "corrilhos" collusion policy imposes inexperienced interventionists? And the Code of Interveners? What a serene examination of the circumstances shows is that the force of bad habits does not find the security of a Government supported by a systematic and coordinated political doctrine to resist it. We are now for more than a year being ruled without a Congress. It seems that all the revolutionary fury focused on extinguishing the single legitimate representative power of opinion in a democracy: Since the presidential regime does not have the plastic and instant remedy of the constitutional dissolution of parliaments - an admirable measure that has just restored to England the tranquility that had been seriously shaken - one can understand that the exaggerated opinion may dissolve, by force, parliaments and governments that work against the demands of the people.
But, if is on behalf of this that a violent remedy, of unpredictable consequences, is applied for lack of a better option, what the logic imposes is an immediate election to indicate their new representatives. Most of the skillful politicians, who guide the popular discontent to their advantage, are frankly supporters of presidential regime. One could say that they fear reaching the bottom of the wound. If they did, they would see that the only evil, the essential evil, the evil to be healed in Brazil is this presidential regime itself, which the surprise of manage to implement in the February 24 Constitution.
If Brazil comes out of this revolution keeping the February 24 regimen, this movement, which is causing such profound shocks to the country, will have failed in its objective, unconscious, but sensitive to the national soul. And, then, do not have the slightest doubt: It is a known fact that, when Mr. More than twenty years of journalism, of intellectual life in teaching, in the tribunes of conference, and in the tribunes of Parliament - have never let me understand the Brazilian things in another way. Circumstances have placed me among those who lost their political position because of the Revolution, whose causes I search, not on the men who eventually took its guidance, but in the logical sequence of events.
It does not, either, long for joining the common pursuit for reformatory formulas. These are pages of one who deplores the absence of historical reflection, and sees so clearly what only ignorance tries to confuse. With him, an adjective: Whenever someone acts in the practical life with duplicity, craftiness, bad faith, and insincerity, this person is called a disciple of 'Machiavelli' But the truth is that few people know the work of the Florentine writer and the real origins of this naming process.
Separata da Revista do Livro, Rio de Janeiro, n. And the publishing house does that in an admirable time of the Brazilian politics, when the empirical Machiavellis that disseminate disturbance among the people abound, and there is a choice to be made between the two eternal principles that polarize the forms of government of the peoples: Il Principe is a real treatise on methods of government in the cult of authority.
At that point, it revealed to be an entity under the Rio de Janeiro's section of the Communist Party. Machiavelli was accused of having been an accomplice in the two conspiracies against the house of Medicis. Machiavelli was always an obedient official and attentive to the orders of his bosses. When he was coordinating the services of the second Chancellery and working as secretary to the Council of Ten, in Florence, he was never assigned any activity of higher command.
His attitude was of a follower of orders, who only allowed himself to suggest any measures when, away from the Chancellery, executed some mission with foreign potentates. His suggestions, however, were rarely used by the Lordship of Florence. And his missions were mostly true failures. Given the surprise of Machiavelli, the countess justified herself saying that "things are understood much better when they are discussed more.
Machiavelli feels soon the seductive influence of the clear character of the prince. Later he once again negotiates alone with him and spends close to four months in his conviviality. And everything suggests that the teachings obtained in this socializing would inspire later, on limbo, many paragraphs of his book Il Principe. When Florence, countered by several enemies, returned to the dominion of the Medici, the persecution against Machiavelli did not spare him neither from prison nor from torture. It is a depressing episode for the character of Machiavelli, who humbles himself shamefully before the enemies.
Without the means to live in the city, he retreats with his family to a small property he owned on the outskirts, in S. Machiavelli felt he had no resources in his ostracism. He wanted to work. He wrote The Prince to be read by the Medici, so that they could see his ability in public affairs and take advantage of that by giving him a job in the administration. When the person to whom the book was dedicated died, he had no doubts and dedicated the book to another person.
Basically, in order to please a sovereign, Machiavelli defends in The Prince methods of keeping a government by the use of authority. His concepts about the techniques for exercising both Authority and Freedom, maintain, in some parts, an eternal freshness, because they are syntheses of states of the human soul, whose evolution has not been great. Calvino Filho did well in translating The Prince. It comes to show many people how humanity has barely changed in these four centuries.
Machiavelli was born on May 3, , and wrote The Prince shortly after