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This is generally bit encryption. If your browser does not support bit encryption, we will use bit v3 technology instead. You can verify that information is being transmitted in encrypted format on the individual pages of our website by checking for the closed padlock icon in the bottom status bar of your browser. Contrary to what was taking place in the Americas, where it was easy for colonial powers to largely destroy the visible and immaterial Amerindian heritage see Mignolo , the colonial forces of Europe chose to engage the Middle Eastern heritage in a different way.
During the Crusades, European powers had tried to transform the Middle East in their own image directly via the Crusader States Tyerman Centuries later it was the attempt to transform it by claiming and controlling Middle Eastern heritage. The French campaign realised old European plans to capture Egypt during the Crusades ibid. During this time, European empires constructed Egypt as a precursor to Western civilisation and as their natural appendix. French scholars assisted in portraying contemporary Egypt as barbaric and in need of liberation from Mamluk rule Abul-Magd Joseph Eschasseriaux, a legislator in the commission to explore the possibility of French colonies in Africa, wrote,.
What finer enterprise for a nation which has already given liberty to Europe [and] freed America than to regenerate in every sense a country which was the first home to civilization and to carry back to their ancient cradle industry, science, and the arts, to cast into the centuries the foundations of a new Thebes or of another Memphis. Its mission was to restore the country to its former greatness as a semi-autonomous colony Said The Amerindian nations could never have been considered a legitimate part of European heritage.
This mission civilisatrice would provide the overall narrative of the French campaign in Egypt Laurens The colonial encounter with Egypt prompted the creation of Egyptology.
The Spanish had no interest in the Middle East and were fully occupied with the commercial circuits in the Americas and their access to the Chinese circuit through the Philippines Mignolo Thus it was not necessary for Europeans to engage and appropriate its ancient heritage until the French invasion.
By , Britain, France, Germany, Italy, the United States of America, and other European countries were competing for Egyptian antiquities and access to archaeological sites. Europeans even pressed for the genesis of the Egyptian antiquities service and the Egyptian Antiquities Museum in Cairo Reid ; Gady The Egyptian Antiquities Museum has been commonly known as the Egyptian Museum to foreign tourists since the late nineteenth century.
Islamic Egypt is thus not regarded as properly Egyptian by Western audiences Riggs The Grand Egyptian Museum , which is currently under construction and will also solely house ancient Egyptian objects, will continue this colonial tradition. Modern Egyptology was an academic discipline conceived by Europeans for Europeans.
Egyptian Egyptologists played virtually no role until the emergence of Egyptian nationalism and eventual formal independence from British domination in the s. They were discouraged from pursuing the exploration of their own ancient heritage both by Islamic tradition and the Western archaeological or rather colonial agenda Elshakry ; Reid and usually relegated to the role of anonymous archaeological labourers Quirke ; Doyon Only recently, the importance of the indigenous workforce was highlighted in a project on the British Egyptologist William Matthew Flinders Petrie by Stephen Quirke and by Joanne Rowland In other words, the West was in complete control of the discipline and the production of its knowledge until at least the early twentieth century.
By the late nineteenth century, pharaonic Egypt had become a projection screen of monarchist values and a European sense of cultural and racial superiority. This myth sees the ancient Egyptian monarchy remain virtually unchanged for nearly 3, years; ever conservative and ever paternal. Egypt controls the economically important Suez Canal. Furthermore, the country is the centre of the Arab World and home to the single largest Arabic-speaking population.
Due to this geostrategic importance, Egypt has attracted the interest of colonial powers for centuries. From the sixteenth century until the country was part of the Ottoman Empire and governed by a Turkish minority Hunter ; Winter The year saw the independence of Egypt from British colonial rule on paper; however, Britain exerted some control over the country until Two years later, formal colonialism came to an end in Egypt, when the last remnants of foreign rule were dispelled Selak However, even after abandoning monarchy and gaining formal independence, the Egyptian elite co-opted the colonial structures put in place by the former colonisers in order to fortify its own power Kandil It soon became entangled in the Cold War between the West and the Soviet Union — the climax of which was the Suez Crisis in when Israel, Britain, and France invaded Egypt over the nationalisation of the Suez Canal, supposed Egyptian support for anti-colonial insurgents in French Algeria, and arms deals with the Soviets — only to be stopped by diplomatic efforts by the Soviet Union, United Nations, and United States ibid.
Close cooperation between the United States and the Egyptian military continued after the coup of July , which saw the military formally back in power and turned the January 25 Revolution of into a failed one. For political and economic reasons, Western leadership has turned a blind eye to the events in Egypt after the revolution of What might be the role of Egyptology in this informal colonialism? Ancient Egyptian heritage is important to Egypt in terms of the national tourism industry, which is one of the largest income generators for the country after the Suez Canal.
Yet, apart from the economic significance, it is utilised in another way. Connected to this is the neoliberalisation of the discipline throughout the industrialised countries. Only because of the privatisation of research it became necessary for researchers to collect third-party funds in order to conduct research.
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This might be exemplified by the Qatar Foundation — privately owned by high-ranking members of the Qatari elite who have also been involved with the Qatari government — which funds the Qatar branch of the University College London. Its purpose is the study of Middle Eastern heritage of which ancient Egypt forms a part. Third-party funding bears the possibility of influencing research on the part of the funder. In fact, ancient Egypt plays a prominent role in the public imagery.
For instance, obelisks from the New Kingdom c. Especially since the French expedition, obelisks have become a symbol of imperial power. Obelisks, both ancient and modern, have been erected in modern imperial centres around the globe Curran et al. This action represented a link between ancient and revolutionary Nasserist Egypt, implying the renaissance of ancient glory in modern Egypt Carruthers However, the most striking application of ancient Egyptian iconography in public imagery is modern. The sequence begins with a New Kingdom style battle relief, showing the mighty king in his chariot, riding down and shooting foreign enemies with his bow.
The relief then progresses with battle scenes up to modern times. This supports the narrative that Egypt had always been governed by strong authority ibid. A more recent adaptation of ancient iconography was employed in a campaign to promote the Egypt Economic Development Conference in March The Cairo Post The ancient Egyptian Ankh , a symbol for life, was chosen as its logo.
The modern adaptation of ancient iconography continued in the summer of at the opening ceremony of the New Suez Canal. In effect, the Egyptian elite decided to commemorate the opening of the canal with an orientalising piece conceived by Europeans. This demonstrates the co-optation of colonial Western narratives by Egyptians for their own purposes. Another example is a twelve-hour concert at the Giza pyramids to celebrate the new millennium. In the process, the Eye of Horus was projected onto one side of the Great Pyramid as a light image.
The Egyptian government cancelled its plans to lower a light-emitting, golden pyramid capstone by a helicopter beforehand after concerns had emerged that this might be a Zionist-Masonic plot to infiltrate the country. Not only does ancient Egypt serve a political purpose in the public imagery, it is also used for rhetorical purposes in political speeches.
Egypt was constructed as the most important and oldest Arab nation given that its existence dates back seven millennia. In fact, this heritage was imagined as the very reason that Egyptians were the most precious of all Arab peoples ibid. The reference to a distant, supposedly glorious past in order to generate legitimacy has been utilised by authoritarian governments throughout modern history.
Governments in these countries created legitimacy by referring respectively to ancient Greece and the Byzantine era Kokkinidou and Nikolaidou , Germanic prehistory Arnold , ancient Babylon and prominent figures of Islamic history Isakhan , and the Roman Empire Munzi In this sense, one could regard the ideological exploitation of the distant past as a trademark of authoritarian governments.
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Consequently, the analysis of the way the Egyptian elite has engaged their distant past can help unmask the Egyptian government as authoritarian. Ancient Egypt also has the potential to be instrumentalised by the opponents of the political elites. Adel Iskandar and Yasmin El Shazly portrayed activists of the January 25 Revolution as the direct continuation of ancient Egyptian workers who made fun of New Kingdom royalty using satirical graffiti Iskandar ; El Shazly Ultimately, Egyptian heritage is a contested space — an ideological battleground between the different stakeholders within Egyptian society as well as scholars and politicians from abroad.
Border thinking is a different way of thinking that recovers subaltern knowledges and perspectives to counter hegemonic knowledge. For instance, such cracks become apparent through the study of how Egyptian elites have co-opted Western narratives of their own past. This leads them to reproduce European narratives in some way since Europe still appears as the academic hegemon Chakrabarty ; Mignolo ; Egyptian scholars, if they are serious about studying their own heritage, will eventually feel compelled to leave Egypt to study or conduct research at a Western university.
An exception from this rule may be the American University in Cairo , which is basically a Western-style university and a place of education for the Egyptian elite at Tahrir Square in the centre of Cairo. Western Egyptological institutions remain the epistemological powerhouses of the discipline. Therefore, any Egyptian Egyptologist will develop a double-consciousness based on colonial disciplinary knowledge; regardless of whether they are studying for their first degree or PhD.
This also includes writing scholarly works in the imperial languages of the discipline see, also, Wynn Again, Egyptians are dwelling in the border. In this respect, it might be premature to celebrate the advent of indigenous Egyptology beginning in the twentieth century. While the direct administration of the Egyptian heritage by Egyptians may be a sign of decolonisation Walker , it is only superficial. Hawass became known for continuing the commodification of Egyptian heritage, mainly for economic reasons Walker ; Elshahed ; Shenker However, other dimensions, such as the Arab-Israeli conflict, factor into contemporary local approaches in Egyptology as well.
Thus, discoveries such as the tombs of workmen were used in an attempt to disprove Israeli narratives concerning the construction of the Giza pyramids by Israelite slaves. Wynn argued that this narrative legitimizes the appropriation of labour of the lower classes of Egyptian society. This implies that, in terms of decolonisation, it is simply not enough to replace Western rule with an Egyptian rule using colonial knowledge produced in the West to stabilize and enact its own authority.
Or, to paraphrase, it is not enough to replace external colonialism with informal internal colonialism. As shown above, a regime of informal colonisation instrumentalises the Egyptian heritage. Moreover, the Egyptian tourism industry has been mainly directed at foreign, and predominantly Western, tourists Mitchell ; Doyon As such, it largely satisfies the image of ancient Egypt that is expected by Western audiences, i. This is made especially clear by the evocation of the eighteenth-century dynasty king Tutankhamun c.
Furthermore, there is a difference in the treatment of foreigners and Egyptians when it comes to access to ancient sites and museums. For instance, there are geographically separate entrances for both groups to the Giza plateau — the entrance for Egyptians is four kilometres away from the pyramids while the one for foreign tourists is much closer.
This was justified by Hawass, alleging that Egyptians behaved disrespectfully toward their ancient heritage Shenker Fanon, based on his observations in the Algerian War of Independence — , indicated that the tourism industry of formerly colonised countries would focus on Western audiences as the target group when he wrote that, [13]. The national bourgeoisie organizes centers of rest and relaxation and pleasure resorts to meet the wishes of the Western bourgeoisie.
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Such activity is given the name of tourism, and for the occasion will be built up as a national industry Fanon This ideology of Pharaonism saw the creation of national monuments that combined ancient and modern Egyptian iconography Hassan As a result, Egyptology, both past and present, does offer the Egyptian elite an ideological legitimisation for authoritarian government. This confirms the prevalent internal colonisation of the Egyptian heritage. It bears the power to colonise local histories and ideologically legitimise governments. From formal to informal colonialism, Western Egyptology provides Egyptian ruling elites with a legitimising ideological narrative of paternalist rule.
It is for this reason that the auto-critique and decolonisation of Egyptology is an imminently political act. For those not part of the elite, however, this instrumentalisation may also be central to making a living in the tourism industry. While decolonising Egyptology might be an urgent issue for Egyptian academics, who often belong to the upper and middle class, this might not necessarily be the case for lower class Egyptians depending on the commodification of this heritage for their living. This would mean that the current system be maintained so as not to threaten the material survival of the working poor through any overall changes to the informal colonial identification of Egypt with the ancient Egypt of Western-style Egyptology.
In that case, any decolonial approach, not unlike current contemporary Western foreign policy, would find itself stuck in the dilemma between radical political critique and the wish for social, political, and economic stability in a post-colonial globalized world order. The future will show whether Western and Egyptian Egyptologists are willing and capable of performing serious self-critique and self-reflexion in order to tackle this dilemma.
Beyond being a formal problem concerning the coloniality of knowledge production within the academic discipline of Egyptology, ancient Egypt describes a trope with profound political and economic implications for contemporary Egypt. As this chapter has shown, elite rule in Egypt is performed through informal colonialism that is based on the co-optation of Western colonial narratives.
Ending its ideological legitimisation is thus inseparable from the decolonisation of Egyptology. A History of Revolt in Egypt. University of California Press. The Past as Propaganda: Totalitarian Archaeology in Nazi Germany. American Ethnicity and Nationality in the Depicted Past. The Politics of the Past. Congressional Research Service RL The History of an Opera in Letters and Documents. University of Minnesota Press.
Egyptology, Archaeology and the Making of Revolutionary Egypt, c. Thinking about Histories of Egyptology.