La mission de coordination et de rationalisation des recherches Les principales lignes directrices Cadre juridique permissif Cad re juridique flexible C adre juridique restrictif Une recherche sur les cellules souches embryonnaires CSE h et les cellules souches pluripotentes induites iPS en retrait La protection de l'embryon in vitro Les autres demandes La question des cybrides Une technique ancienne Liste des recommandations Dans son article 25 modifiant les articles L.
Origine des cellules souches. Chacun de ces compartiments aura ses propres cellules souches, qui ne seront plus totipotentes: Les CSE sont des cellules normales au plan physiologique. Les cellules du sang de cordon. Les cellules de la paroi du cordon ombilical. Han, il serait possible de produire des cellules souches en une fois pour mille patients avec un seul tissu.
Il ne trie pas, mais cultive les cellules pour les induire dans telle ou telle direction. Quelle est leur fonction? Quelle est leur cellule d'origine? Les cellules souches neurales. On les trouve principalement dans le follicule pileux. Ses potentiels sont multiples, mais ce ne sont que des potentiels. Ces recherches progressent vite au plan cognitif. Les cellules cardiaques sont le second candidat potentiel pour le criblage pharmaceutique.
Daniel Louvard, que par M. Le risque de coma est important.
Mali : histoire secrète d'une guerre surprise - Affaires étrangères
Le principe est celui de la culture autologue: Nous nous sommes entretenus avec M. Actuellement la patiente se porte bien. La manipulation des cellules souches in vitro. Daniel Aberdam et Joseph Itskovitz-Eldor. Tel est le constat de M. Ce sont parfois des essais cliniques sauvages.
Le tourisme cellulaire existe. Des patients atteints de pathologies graves courent ainsi des dangers physiques, psychologiques et financiers. La partie fondamentale, sous la direction de M. Des interrogations sur les similitudes avec les CSE. Il y voit des risques de clonage. Les questions sont les suivantes: Les projets de recherches soutenus par la Commission. La plupart portaient sur des cellules souches adultes. La mission de coordination et de rationalisation des recherches. Les principales lignes directrices. Ils tentent de concentrer leurs recherches dans trois domaines: Paradoxalement, les fondements culturels et religieux de ces lois les rendent permissives dans le domaine de la recherche sur les cellules souches.
Joseph Itskovitz-Eldor, professeur au Technion Le MEXT chapeaute un projet associant quatre institutions majeures dans le domaine: Il existe une commission des normes. Ces conditions sont cumulatives: Le couple donneur ou le donneur de sperme doivent donner leur consentement.
Il s'agit de l'obtention de cellules souches pluripotentes ou multipotentes. Paris, Montpellier et Strasbourg. Biologie des populations lymphocytaires. Etude des modifications du transcriptome des cellules souches embryonnaires chez l'homme. Comme dans la plupart des pays, les grands groupes pharmaceutiques ont pris des positions attentistes. La protection de l'embryon in vitro. Pierre Jouannet 87 voir Partie I. Ils se fondaient sur la loi du 29 juillet qui interdisait la recherche sur l'embryon. Les lignes directrices internationales renforcent cette tendance.
On ne doit pas susciter de faux espoirs. Ce rapport rappelle que: Peut-on envisager de faire de telles recherches? Il faut d'abord enlever l'A. L'ovocyte doit normalement donner le signal permettant la reprogrammation de l'A. Comme tous les scientifiques, Madame Nicole Le Douarin souligne le faible rendement de cette technique. Les recherches sur les cellules souches embryonnaires fascinent, elles suscitent espoirs et controverses. Axel Kahn dans son dernier ouvrage. Concernant les aspects internationaux de ces recherches, M. Mlle Judy Arcidiacono, biologiste.
Mlle Shena Arellano, analyste pour les questions internationales. It becomes a tragic social reality when there are personal and physical consequences of such an imaginary predisposition. Two thirds of all the women in Romania confirm that, at least once in their lifetime, were subjected to a form of aggression, verbal, sexual or physical. As indicated by the frightening statistics in Romania today, which shockingly enough show that over And of the 60, cases of abuse reported between , resulted in the death of the victims.
Romania leads in a negative competition for the most abusive country on the continent. The unofficial data provided by some Police officials and other public figures are even more frightening, confirming the fact that in Romania a rape is registered every 10 hours even if in the public data many go unknown!
The circle of violence and abuse is sealed by the lack of information and protection. We need to add here the widespread sexual trafficking, with only in the first semester of more than minor girls were reported as trafficked for sex. Reported to the total population of these regions the proportions are horrendous, with Vaslui having 3. Regrettably, when dealing with these unquestionable data, which are showing that there is a culture of physical violence pitted against women in Romania, in turn generated by a sub-culture of aggressive behavior and natural domination of men, there is no qualitative consistence to the phenomenon.
We do not have at this point coherent and scientifically sound qualitative research to show the complexity of the phenomenon. Once again media example could provide a deeper insight into the horrific nature of this brutality towards women. In one of the most cruel cases of rape in recent times took place in the Vaslui County, when seven young men aged 18 to 27 kidnapped a very young school girl barely 18 years old and raped her brutally for hours, humiliating and abusing her in unimaginable ways [45].
What is even more shocking and relevant for this discussion, is that the young girl that they sequestered and assaulted was soon ostracized by their community. The people of the village they all lived in actually supported the rapist boys and almost the entire village accused the girl for lewd behavior. Even more worrying, when it came to public support for the victim, shockingly enough a quarter of the Romanians, when asked who carried the responsibility for the rape, included the female victim as co-responsible [46]. Once more, if needed, this clearly indicates a cultural predisposition for discrimination against women and even a general promotion of such behavior.
Seeing such cases we could be inclined to explain them as expressions of the dynamics of a socially and economically backward sub-culture. We could attribute such behavior to marginal groups and disenfranchised individuals. Our Universities are plagued the same disease, as indicated by recently scandals, when young female students were coming out publicly and were denouncing the fact they were sexually abused by their professors.
In several academic centers from Cluj to Iasi , teachers were exposed to have demanded sexual favors for better grades. In an appalling case, one of the professors of the respected University in Cluj, used his authority and social position and transformed the academia into a place for sexual abuse [47]. Many other cases were made public and they showed that male teachers were demanding sexual favors for promoting exams.
The cycle of abuse was practiced even in early school, as indicated by many cases of sexual exploitation practiced by male teachers with their sometimes minor students. As showcased by one the most successful films made by recent Romanian movies directors, 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days by Cristian Mungiu, the culture of rape and aggression towards women is not a recent phenomenon in Romanian society. The culture of physical abuse was a terrific reality even during the communist regime.
Looking for an illicit abortionist, the man they pay to perform the illegal act ends up raping both of them and the two young women end up silently accepting their subservient position.
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Another powerful example can be found in a movie which, although not so famous internationally as the previous, offers the viewer a revelatory depiction of the situations many women in this country are trapped in. Ryna , by Ruxandra Zenide, presents its viewers with a veridic depiction of the way men handle women in small communities.
What is troubling in Ryna is not just the brutality of the rape scene, in which the Mayor of a small village rapes a young girl, a teenager who has dreams of professional accomplishment as a photographer. Her life is crushed by the brutal act, but more significantly the rape happens while her father with her in the car of the Mayor, and then later the same drunken father and the authorities including the Police are trying to convince the girl not to press charges.
Once again, the same culture of silencing the victims becomes apparent. Deceived by their male partners and ruthlessly exploited, many women are helpless victims of a macho and patriarchal society based upon gender discrimination. What can we make of this epidemic of aggression and brutality towards women in our society today? We need to ask ourselves how is this possible? My argument here it that this is not only about public representations, it has more profound connections than just political and media structures or images, it also has to do with the private models we as social group consider acceptable.
One explanation is the widespread acceptance and even condescendence towards the private and domestic abuse against women. As indicated by a European survey of violence against women, [48] Romania scores among the top countries of 28 when it comes to physical and sexual violence perpetrated by present of former partners.
Once more, we can identify the manifestations of this mentality in several media contexts. Photo 13 Even if this was the case or not, the simple fact that abusing a pregnant woman is considered as an acceptable situation for amusement is an illustration of the mechanisms described here. Of course, as argued before, this is only a case of socially marginal people, who display such behaviors because they are living in subgroups that are socially uneducated.
Such behaviors are not defined by suburban or peripheral contexts. Andreea Marin, who has been a very successful TV presenter at the National Television came out publicly and admitted that she was abused and beaten, even if not sexually abused by her former husband, himself a famous actor, rock singer and TV star. Another recent scandal involving media celebrities shows a similar pattern. One of the pop singers, Alexandra Stan, who reached international notoriety, was brutally beaten by her boyfriend while driving and then she was abandoned in the middle of a field.
Stan, who managed to sell millions of copies of her songs abroad, was disfigured by her own manager and then threatened with more violence if trying to sue him. Again, the content of advertising might provide an explanation for such actions, since it offers a visible and direct example for how the normalizing of abuse and even how lightly gender violence and objectification is dealt with in our society. In an apparent sensual way, the logo says: Violence is presented as desirable, as provoking pleasure and, even if it is made in a laughable manner, we need to follow with an interpretation opening the understanding for deeper meanings.
It has to do with the private acceptance of male brutality. Male domination and brutality are depicted as a form of rewarding women, as something that most women desire. As a conclusion, I would argue that these representations of abuse against women, both in the public and the private space, where women are most often distributed as sexual objects, as always available for male sexuality, and presented as being implicitly submissive are integral elements of the patriarchal and macho-ist culture.
By public and private distribution of women in such positions we are actually creating an environment in which young girls and young teenager women are taught to accept their condition as objects. By being trained from early ages to be sexually available and to believe that their social success depends on their ability to please men, women are culturally domesticated while men are trained to perceive women as different read inferior.
It is more than providing media roles that women follow, it is a process of image and identity formation, which must be connected to a deeply rooted stereotype in our collective psyche which provides the basis for discrimination on gender bases. This social model based on aggressive domination by men and the demise of women is constantly reinforcing the dynamics of a patriarchal society.
And the vicious cycle of domination cannot be interrupted as long as the superficialized and sexualized representations of women, followed by public displays of disdain and even abuse towards any females that break this circle continue to be cultivated. Any changes in the collective psyche take place gradually and the condition of women cannot be improved unless we change the gender roles of women in Romanian society and the condition of women in our private lives.
Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State.
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A Radical Reassesment of Freudian Psychoanalysis. The Creation of Patriarchy. Oxford University Press, The Meaning of Macho: Being a Man in Mexico City. University of California Press, Regnery Gateway, , p. Fals tratat despre metehnele imaginarului politic autohton. In my research I want to shed light on a marginal phenomenon that emerged in Eastern Europe in s. I will focus on the reception of the American counterculture and, more specifically, I will explain which ideas were imported.
Through a multidisciplinary approach, I will try to show how the political and social context determined some variations of the American original phenomenon. Therefore, in the first part I will present the birth of the Romanian counterculture. I will ask myself which concepts were assimilated by the Romanian artists Marxism, nationalism and mysticism. I will use two cases as examples: Dorin Liviu Zaharia and Phoenix.
In the Eastern Europe of the s, an interesting youth phenomenon emerged. Influenced by the American counterculture, the youngsters from the Communist countries rioted against the Communist authority through music and literature. The new cultural wave was widely received behind the Iron Curtain. In Romania, the reception of the American counterculture had some particularities. The hippies refused Marxism, insisting rather on the mystic and nationalist dimensions. The political context played an essential role in this equation.
What Do We Understand through Counterculture? The Definition of the Main Concepts. We understand through the concept of counterculture the social, literary and aesthetic movement that started in s in the USA. In our research, we will follow the definition suggested by Theodore Roszak, the first American scholar that dealt with the subject, as a reaction to excessive technology [1]. The movement was born in the late s and continued during the s as a strong reaction against the state, which is seen as the oppressor. The literary and philosophical sources are very eclectic: One may ask oneself what may unite all these authors.
We consider that on the cultural level, all the sources of the American counterculture deal with the theme of modernity, being against the industry and technology [2]. The argument is taken further, by proposing different types of spiritual, cultural, spiritual and even urban alternatives. We have to take into account that the counterculture has a powerful Leftist dimension, influenced by the writings of the Frankfurt School of philosophy, particularly Herbert Marcuse Eros and Civilization and The One-dimensional Man.
To resume, he insists that the State in general creates a frustrated individual, through two main mechanisms: This large phenomenon is present on three levels: When we are talking about the literary counterculture, we take into consideration the works of Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac, Lawrence Ferlinghetti and, partly, William Seward Burroughs.
They are known as The Beat Generation. The literary dimension of counterculture refuses rational thinking, which, according to them, belongs to the Modern State. For them, the solution was to be found in alternative religious movements, new for the time in USA: Zen Buddhism and Hinduism. Jack Kerouac will explore the Zen Buddhist movement mixed with the passion for travelling in novels like On the Road and Dharma Bums [5].
William Seward Burroughs is another key writer of this generation, even though his aesthetic line is different than the Beat Generation one. He writes about his own experience with hard drugs heroin particularly , in novels like Junky and The Naked Lunch. However, the biggest revolution was brought by the counterculture movement in music, not in literature. Influenced by jazz and blues, rock music determined a revolution in the popular culture. This movement was started in late s, being influenced by the American blues and jazz.
In the early s already many groups emerged. Moreover, these new music trends influenced the masses. Therefore, the last aspect of the counterculture we discuss is the social aspect, namely the big movements that occurred from to in big cities like San Francisco or New York.
The street movements had a strong Leftist position and soon they influenced similar movements from Europe, especially in the Netherlands, France and Germany. James Dean from the movie The Rebel without a Cause could be considered an emblematic figure of the American counterculture. He is the ultimate insubordinate against an invisible authority. In our research, we will discuss only about the literary, social and musical phenomenon that emerged in America and later found unexpected roots in Eastern Europe.
For this reason, we will try to understand how this cultural and social phenomenon modifies its content when it is assimilated in Eastern Europe. Therefore, the subject of our research is the reception and the hybridization of counterculture in Communist Romania. Moreover, we will reveal how counterculture was assimilated with nationalism, through force. In other words, our question is the following one: Other questions equally rise: Lastly, we have to be honest and question ourselves to what extent practicing counterculture was a phenomenon of escape from the communist routine.
The issue of the marginal youth groups from communist societies was not debated until the early The explanation is a very simple one. After the fall of the Communist regimes, the academic research focused on the repression of the individuals [6]. Only after this strong, emotional aspect was clarified, the investigation of the social mutations done by communist regimes began.
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Only after , were studies broadened, treating themes like childhood in communism, the architectural mutations or the Roma communities [7]. The new inquiries used a larger variety of sources, not only archives: After , even some academic journals published articles that focused on the reception of the American counterculture in the Eastern Europe [11]. For the Romanian case, Caius Dobrescu and Madigan Fichter presented the issue in contemporary journals.
Dobrescu analyzed the case of the Phoenix band [12] and Madigan Fichter offered a synthetic approach of the Romanian counterculture [13]. In order to understand the dynamics of this phenomenon, we will use methods from different fields of study. Our approach is clearly an historical one, but at the same time we use literary and musical references. In order to understand the dynamics of this phenomenon, we are interested more in the social and cultural structures than in the richness of the archives.
In other words, we will be interested in the methodology promoted by the Annales School of History. We are interested in re-creating the micro-history shaped by the outsiders, who were not conscripted into official papers. We are interested in explaining how the outsiders from a specific society can reflect the real image of a society.
Therefore, we will start from the following theoretical assumption: In contrast, there is always a negotiation and a dialectic dynamic between the two [14]. The countries from the Eastern bloc started to have their own distinctive position. In , riots against the system emerged in Poland, Hungary and Eastern Germany. In this context, Romania played a double role: Therefore, during the Hungarian Revolution of , Romania strongly accused the counter-revolution. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, the leader of the country, was aware that the ideas could spread in the nearby region of Transylvania, due to the large community of the Hungarians that lived there.
However, the Securitate brought the workers from the nearby factories to control the people. The riot ended in a general fight and the leaders were punished. Consequently, the Soviet army retreated from the Romanian territory in , considering this country as a faithful and loyal ally. We consider that was the starting point for the nationalist direction in the Romanian communist ideology. At that moment, it could be seen only at diplomatic and international level, but gradually it could be spotted also in culture and ideology.
For instance, the Leninist -Marxist dogma was modified. This aspect is widely explained by Mihai Retegan: When Khrushchev accused the Stalinist cult, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej saw this maneuver as a menace to his own position. A double tactic was used by Dej: Other two aspects may also explain the birth of the nationalist direction. Guvernarea Gheorghiu-Dej [16] [Elites and society. By taking into consideration all these aspects and the fact that other communist countries had a similar interest for instance, China and Yugoslavia , we may observe that the roots of the nationalist version of Communism were more profound than those visible in [18].
His first interest was to legitimate his power with regard to the Soviet Union [19]. At the same time, his arguments of autonomy were melted in an appealing form for the public. In order to understand the emergence of the Romanian counterculture, we have to see how the Romanian leader created, for a few years, the impression of being a rebel with a political cause. First of all, financially the new leader wanted to separate his country from the Valev plan.
This plan had as a purpose to subdue the national production to the supervision of Moscow. At the same time, he surrounded himself by faithful and intelligent leaders, like Ion Maurer and Paul Nicolescu-Mizil. The third aspect that gave credibility to Nicolae Ceausescu was his anti-Soviet attitude. Even though his position was not as radical as that of Tito, it was still present. The double game was justified by the proximity of the USSR.
Ceausescu wanted to avoid an open position against the Soviets. Yet, when the Romanian leader had the opportunity to challenge the Soviet actions, he did it only in discourse, never through engaged conflicts. His main tactic was to maintain good relationships with as many states as possible. He saw himself as a mediator, but he always knew where his ideological camp was [21].
When Charles de Gaulle came in Romania May , the French president proposed to the communist leader to create a specific alliance between the two countries. However, Ceausescu was cautious and he declined the proposition of the French president. At the same time, he maintained good commercial and even cultural relationships with the French state. We consider that the last aspect, the nationalistic approach, was one of the most important pillars on which Ceausescu managed to control effectively the country. Still today, the traces of the nationalistic program are still highly visible in the Romanian culture [22].
Where may we spot the germs of this ideology? The main aim of all totalitarian regimes is to control the cultural discourse through which the masses can be more easily corrupted. The artistic act is by definition individual and difficult to manipulate. However, the Communist regime was interested in controlling the writers, painters and, broadly, all the artists, in order to promote the desired message. Therefore, the Party had to be a messenger between socialism and the proletariat [23].
We may easily observe that, beyond the Hegelian dialectics, we are dealing with a phenomenon which borrows many religious aspects. For instance, the individual has the duty to obey to the instance that has the ultimate version of truth: That is the reason why Lucian Boia considers Communism as a religion without transcendence [24]. Hence, the concept of the hybridization of ideology by Katherine Verdery may explain how nationalism and Marxism were mixed up together in the cultural sphere [25]. For the American historian Katherine Verdery, between and through the wooden language [26] we may see a constant battle between the Marxist speech and the nationalist one.
The fight was won by the nationalist terminology, starting from s, when the new political culture promoted by Ceausescu emerged. In other words, the role of the Party in discourse was slowly reduced. The concept of the nation became more appealing. How was this particular form of Marxism implemented in the Romanian cultural system?
From until , the contacts with the foreign culture were permitted, as long as they were not too harmful for the existence of the system.
At the same time, we have to take into consideration the fact that during , culture had another pattern, totally different than the situation before the war. However, starting from , Western foreign cultural products were translated more and more in Romanian. This was the moment when American counterculture started to be adapted and practiced by the youth. Nonetheless, in the s another cultural approach appeared. In some documents from Protocolul nr. The participants discussed about the new cinematographic direction.
This was the first stage in implementing the nationalistic approach. The cultural intervention was far more intrusive starting from the following year, , after the visit of the Romanian leader in China and North Korea. Even though some scholars argue that the access to the American counterculture was too restricted to create hybrid forms [29] , the biographies and the existent research show that the situation is more complex. Acknowledging the phenomenon that was just happening across the Atlantic Ocean was the first step in shaping the Romanian counterculture.
As we stated before, after , the Stalinist cult was slowly becoming past. In consequence, there was a permission of approaching more delicate subjects, like the issue of the outsiders of the Western societies. However, the first article that promoted the Beat Generation literature was very acid regarding this phenomenon. Meanwhile, we notice a more subtle way in which the wooden language is being implemented. After he presents the main writers of the movement Ginsberg, Kerouac, Ferlinghetti , the author offers a sociological explanation for the name of this literary group.
This argument is partly valid, but reductionist. Beat can equally mean Beatified. However, during s, the whole poetic generation understood through the word Beat a shorter form of the word Beatified [31]. This aspect was not taken into account by the Romanian journalist. We may see that his interpretation is always given from a radical, moral perspective. The conclusion of the author is that the Romanian system cannot create these odd hybrids, because a better system is emerging: We may spot the wooden language in a structure like:.
Therefore, the phrase is not credible for the intellectuals of the s. However, a more delicate aspect was the integration of nationalism into the Romanian counterculture, mainly through the musical dimension of the Romanian counterculture. The quick assimilation of counterculture in music can be explained very easily. It came, practically, on an empty ground. Moreover, from , strong voices that promoted the new musical trends emerged. The most famous cultural journalist was Cornel Chiriac, who was popularizing the European jazz and other trends on his weekly radio show called Metronom, started in July From , when he noticed that the cultural direction was changing, he moved to Western Germany.
He died in suspect conditions in They were strongly influenced by the mystical, Oriental songs of the Beatles. Among them, the most famous band is Phoenix, a group which passed through all the periods of the Romanian counterculture and had a huge musical impact. The Main Particularities of the Romanian Counterculture: Nationalism and Interest in Mysticism. During the period , counterculture was mainly an elitist phenomenon. It was an elitist, high movement. Before the Phoenix mass-phenomenon, some small intellectual groups were already using some of the countercultural patterns and elements.
They were highly educated and had already read carefully the literary sources of the American counterculture. They were synchronized with this phenomenon, when it was imported in Romania. Ioan Petru Culianu, the future historian of religions, was the main intellectual of the group, and Dorin Liviu Zaharia was seen by all as a strong spiritual force [34]. The second was known to all as Chubby and he was strongly interested in mixing the theatrical act with music.
His intention was to mingle folklore with the new musical trends. However, the projects were strongly conceptual and elitist. He was singing unbelievable, tall, intense sounds, with an acute pitch. In the history of the Romanian counterculture in music, he is seen as a Socratic figure. Actually, he did not record many of his live performances. It was only in the following decades that he created some soundtracks for a few national movies. This does not mean that his presence was not vital.
All the testimonies about the Romanian counterculture mention his role as a mentor [36]. For the first time in the Romanian culture, Dorin Liviu Zaharia managed to mix Romanian mysticism with the American psychedelic trend. This may be easily observed in the song Cantic de Haiduc, which was recorded in this first period of the Romanian counterculture The Oriental music is already integrated into the melodic line, but the song is first of all a reinterpretation of a traditional song.
Chubby was interested not in interpreting traditional songs already present in the official cultural discourse but in exploring the mythical and mystical parts of traditions. Before the Phoenix group, Dorin Liviu Zaharia promoted a specific kind of revivalism. The artist was interested in exploring the cultures that existed before modernity for instance, shamanism. A first influence may come from the albums of The Beatles , but he also had some other sources of inspiration. He chose the songs upon their poetic and aesthetic meaning.
The interest towards tradition and folklore can be explained through the influence of Culianu and their common interest in reading Nietzsche, Spengler, Mircea Eliade and Hermann Hesse. They belonged to an elitist Bucharest group whose members were interested in reading these authors. We have to mention that these names were highly read also by the intellectuals of the American counterculture.
Partly, they read these authors influenced by counterculture, but they knew about their ideas from the s, particularly Culianu, as Mircea Florian, a famous underground musician of the period, stated in an interview:. We were reading Nietzsche, equally we were interested by the writings of Far Right orientation, like the poems of Radu Gyr. We were devouring almost everything. Of course, the cultural debates were organized in secret and with discretion. As a small observation, the first years of the Romanian counterculture had many similarities with the Czechoslovakian counterculture after Charta 77 with common aspects like the underground movement, highly intellectual themes and interest for mysticism [38].
We may ask ourselves what determined this interest for mysticism and for the exploration of the mythological features in the Romanian counterculture. This may appear as a paradox in a society which was apparently atheist during the Communist regime. In order to fully understand this phenomenon, we have to go back to the definition of counterculture as a reaction against the Establishment. One of the key aspects of the Romanian communist Establishment was that it wanted to create a society less influenced by religion.
However, before , Romania had a powerful religious tradition, through the Orthodox Church and in Transylvania also through the Greek-Catholic Church, Roman-Catholic Church and the Protestant denominations particularly for the national minorities [39]. Also, the Romanian mentality was strongly determined by religiousness.
The facts are multiple: Therefore, when the Communist regime discouraged practicing the religion, many compensatory acts emerged. Some of the Romanians practiced their own traditional beliefs in secret, but others forgot the old customs. However, we consider that a psychological need for a religious system [41] was present in the post-war Romania.
The interest in a religious form of knowledge was still present to the youth of the s. That is why many religious marginal groups that had existed since the interwar period became highly appealing when Communism arrived Rugul Aprins, Oastea Domnului, etc. This may be one possible explanation for the fascination with mysticism. This was determined by a mentality which was focused on the religious phenomenon. However, the intellectuals could not return to the old beliefs that were present in pre-war Romania due to two main causes: Therefore, when the American counterculture was imported, they also took the spiritual aspect of this phenomenon Buddhism, interest in Oriental religions, etc.
Finally, we have to make one essential observation: Therefore, counterculture and its adjacent topics were available at a larger scale. As we have stated before, this was also partly due to the activity of Cornel Chiriac, through his radio show Metronom. He was also engaged in coordinating the local and regional music festivals. The musical group was Phoenix and it came from Timisoara. At the beginning, they were influenced by The Beatles and The Shadows [43]. In , when their first album was edited, One interesting aspect about the Romanian counterculture is the presence of censorship.
The counterculture in USA and Western Europe could be openly against the dominant system, but this attitude was not possible in Romania. Therefore, we have to specify a particularity that emerged in all the countries of the Eastern European bloc that were affected by interdiction. The lyrics were expressing hidden messages, only known by some keen listeners. The title may refer to the Romanian leader, who ruled the country without any judgment. However, the text passed the censorship due to the lack of a specific reference.
In other words, the lyrics describe an old man, who is holding a speech that no one listens to. Therefore, the situation may be read in different ways: In order for their texts to be allowed by censorship, the composers used a double-tactic. Their texts were always ambiguous enough in order to have multiple interpretations and justifications. For instance, the lyrics: The text can refer to various situations, not only to the Romanian leader. Moreover, when the musicians proposed the lyrics, they said that it was a Romanian interpretation of the song The Fool on a Hill by The Beatles.
Due to their spirit of contestation and their innovative line, the Phoenix became very popular. However, at the end of , the vocalist Moni Bordeianu emigrated, and the aesthetic approach of the band changed. In s, the group became more and more engaged in the local theatre scene, with projects such as However, at the same time, a new political direction was indicated. Therefore, the degenerate, Western products had to be severely controlled. This aspect was clearly stipulated in official documents regarding the development of the culture:. Behind the strong wooden language, an external enemy of the system was shaped: Therefore, the Romanian leader imposed new directions of approach, through the famous speech called Tezele din Iulie [July Theses].
In this context, Phoenix tried to adjust to the new cultural context. From this point, the subversive aspect was far more sophisticated. For instance, in the album Mugur de Fluier [Whistle Bud] from , the musicians mixed the folkloric patterns with the new instrumentation. At this point, they were highly influenced by Jethro Tull and other Western bands who were themselves exploring the traditional elements. However, we have to mention the difference between Phoenix and Chubby: For instance, the album Mugur de Fluier [Whistle Bud] has some interesting lyrics, which were written by two poets: They were highly-prepared to play along the official line, but by subverting it.
For instance, the song Andrii Popa from the mentioned album refers to an outlaw from the south of Romania, who recovers stolen girls by the Turks [48]. The idea of a Romanian rebel may be interpreted in various ways, depending on the needed context. However, the reference against the Communist system became more and more sophisticated throughout time.
Concerning the instrumentation, the declared aim of the musicians was to explore the traditional patterns, starting from pastoral songs to fast rhythms.
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For instance, in one of these tracks, the rhythm is heavily influenced by the Balcanic beats. Initially, this song was played in private parties, but the fans insisted heavily to be included on the recording. In other words, the authors translated the ideals of the hippies to a community that could be referred to without any problems in Communist Romania.
The references for the hippies were few and they were mostly admitted in journals, just to depict the decadence of the Western world. The subversion against the system was coded to the extent that the censors could not do anything about it, since they did not understand it. It was written in an 18 th -century version of Romanian, with sophisticated cultural references European mysticism, Gnosticism and esoteric symbols. The title refers to a Medieval literary genre, fabula th at used to criticize specific public characters. Moreover, the author creates a vast system of mythical creatures, which shape a spiritual universal hierarchy [50].
We may again see the fascination of the Romanian counterculture towards myths and foreign mythologies. However, the poets mix, adjust and mingle symbols that come from totally different backgrounds: This method was specific to the American counterculture itself: Equally, Jack Kerouac explored different religions in his novel Dharma Bums.
Therefore, in this album we may spot the two dimensions of the Romanian counterculture: For instance, the song Nunta [ The Wedding] refers to a rural episode, but at the same time includes other sources. At this point, the group was influenced by Jethro Tull, a British rock band that included folk elements. Moreover, they were repeatedly menaced by the agents. In this situation, the band fled the country, hidden in guitar stations, in Phoenix reunited in Western Germany, but they never reached the same success as in Romania.
The explanations are multiple: When talking about Romanian counterculture, we have to notice some interesting aspects. Normally, American counterculture had a strong Leftist dimension, through the New Left movement. The first particularity of Romanian counterculture is that from its starting point, the Marxist dimension was absent. Therefore, a question occurs: Two possible explanations may arise. The first answer comes from a psychological perspective. The youth from this period was the first generation who was born, raised and educated in the Communist spirit by the state.
Certainly, the nostalgia for the past was transmitted through the older generation, in their private lives, in their own families. However, at this point, the existing, dominant discourse in the written press, media and culture at that time was the Marxist-Leninist one. On the other hand, the youth period was strongly determined by a sense of rebellion against the existing dominant discourse. In other words, the essence of the counterculture is rebelling against the world of the adults. Many studies from different psychological schools prove that the teenage period can be inherently stressful and that teenagers can be aggressive against the world of the adults particularly between the age of 12 to 17 years [51].
Long story short, we consider that rebellion is an inherent psychological behavior. As well, upon this psychological existing pattern, a cultural layer can appear [52]. This psychological explanation may offer us a clue why the youth from were not interested into the Marxist-Leninist ideas, which were highly present in counterculture. The Establishment and implicitly, the society of the adults were dominated by a strong Communist discourse. Even the Marxist iconic personalities were used by the Communist state in order to enforce its own power.
For example, the figure of Che Guevara was always presented in a good way. His ideals were useful for the ideological frame of the Communist state. For instance, his figure is strongly glorified in the newspaper Contemporanul from I have met Che Guevara during one night; he was wearing a kaki blouse and aviator boots. He was wearing the liberty at his belt and the red star on his black beret. His thoughts were covering his figure as the globe pushed the shoulders of Atlas [53]. The words used are from an archaic register. Therefore, while trying to promote Marxist iconic figures, the Romanian ideology managed to do the contrary.
The articles about Che Guevara were abundant: However, they were not appealing for the youth, because they were not subversive. On the other hand, this psychological explanation is not complete. If we cross the borders of Romania, we may see some real Marxist interests in the other countries from the Communist bloc. For instance, in the Czechoslovakian counterculture, a significant part used Leftist concepts with fluency and pertinence [55]. Equal interests can be found in Poland or in Hungary. How may we understand this regional paradox? One of the explanations for an interest in Marxism in these countries can be found in regional history.
Even though Transylvania also was a part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, its economy was significantly more influenced by agriculture than industry. This region was one of the poorest from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Moreover, the culture was formed, to a certain extent, in the other regions of Romania Wallachia and Moldavia [56]. The industrialization created a new class, that of the workers. Therefore, the socialist movements were more present in Central Europe than in Romania. Moreover, the intelligentsia ignored the socialist dimension.
We saw what the main aspects of the Romanian counterculture were determined by. After clarifying the key-terms, like counterculture, we tried to argue that in Eastern Europe another type of rebel emerged: In order to demonstrate the thesis, we tried to explain why the issue of the outsiders from the Communist societies was not properly researched until early s.
In our first part, we argued that the nationalistic discourse was already present in s. We have seen the four points upon which he became famous: We have seen how this mechanism emerged and how it was cleverly spread in the whole public speech. In our second part, we explored two of the key figures of the Romanian counterculture: Dorin Liviu Zaharia and the group Phoenix.
While Dorin Liviu Zaharia was using sophisticated mythical references, the group Phoenix managed to mix the rock music with the nationalistic pattern. We saw how the double-game with the censorship was won: To sum up, we may see that the nationalist discourse was strongly present in the Romanian music counterculture. This case was not singular in Eastern Europe: The Romanian case is interesting because we may spot a clear difference between the elitist movement named high-counterculture and the mass movement named low-counterculture.
The high-counterculture was visible through the happenings done by Dorin Liviu Zaharia. The low-counterculture is represented by the mixture between nationalism and American counterculture. In order to be allowed by the censorship, in the lyrics was always played a double-game through proposing texts with multiple interpretations. The first limit of our research is the fact that we did not focus on the latter decades s and s.
In future, some interviews and testimonies about this period would be helpful in understanding better the dynamics of this phenomenon. Finally, the literary aspect of the Romanian counterculture has to be further examined. Traducere de Vasile Moga. Cluj-Napoca, Biblioteca Apostrof, Denis Deletant, Communist Terror in Romania: Gheorghe-Gheorghiu Dej and the Police State.
Doru Ionescu, Timpul chitarelor electrice: Durham and London, Duke University Press, The Making of a Counter Culture. Anchor Books, Doubleday Company Inc. American Literature, Responses to the Po-Mo void. Ovidius University Press, Constanta, La vie quotidienne en Roumanie sous le communisme. Rocking the Sta te: Editura Contemporanul, Bucuresti, Editura Academiei Romane, Bucharest, Roumanie. Main Currents of Marxism. Falla, Clarendon Press, Oxford, , p. Pentru o istorie a imaginarului. This theory also may be found in in other writings by Boia.
National Ideology Under Socialism. University of California Press, Berkeley, The structure was already circulating in the Eastern Europe countries. In French, the concept is known as langue du bois. La langue du Bois. Julliard, collection Commentaire, Paris, A History of Protest and Activism, Literature and propaganda in Communist Romania. The original in ibid. Editura Accente, Cluj Napoca, Presses Universitaires de Paris, Paris, Theory and Problems of the Adolescent.
International Relations in Eastern-Europe, This lecture undertakes a vivid analytical recollection of those years and transformations, seen from the vantage point of one who has not only studied those events as a professor, but experienced them directly, during his youth, spent in different multicultural milieus inTransylvania.
In the summer of the year I was 14 going on So my mother signed me up for a strenuous hiking tour up in theBucegiMountains, along the beautifulPrahovaValley. A peculiar feeling of fear mixed with hope accompanied our steps from peak to peak, from one chalet to another.