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He, as part of his extraordinarily deep studies of society, economy, and Weltanschauung , and partly inspired by F. The active man was at the core of all these problems of human performance at work, and psychology, as a new scientific knowledge of humans, began to be considered. At the beginning of the 20th century, this new science offered a plurality of perspectives—structuralism, functionalism, reflexology, and psychoanalysis.
At the same time, some applied knowledge began to grow. Man-at-work problems were soon considered a psychological matter. Scientific research seemed to offer a valuable alternative to class-struggle options. Different facets began to be examined Quintanilla, An initial evaluation of motives and aptitudes in young individuals applying for jobs, carried out by U. German researchers Walter Moede — and Curt Piorkowski — provided some useful tests for detecting unsafe drivers. Other types of workers, like typists, operators, and telegraphers, were analyzed by French researcher Jean Maurice Lahy — , who added new pieces of valuable practical knowledge to professional life.
Psychologists in the U. Person, situation, and means-ends relationships were the basic elements to consider in every practical intervention, and these were also the three factors interacting within the test. French researchers Alfred Binet — and Victor Henri — created a metric scale of intelligence, and British Charles Spearman — mapped human abilities and their interrelationships. This selection process enormously favored the efficiency of the armies of various belligerent countries and, in some cases, it was accompanied by clinical interventions.
Bingham — , with other outstanding psychologists such as J. In the clinical field, Robert S.
Similar efforts were carried out in other countries. Stern did similar work. All these efforts represent the beginning of aviation psychology. Many new centers for selection and guidance were then created and benefited from that military experience and from the instruments produced for the war. Myers — in the U.
The time was also ripe for training professionals in specialized university centers; for instance, in the U.
Bingham who was accompanied by W. Scott and other well-known specialists.
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All these movements clearly revealed the vitality of this new field. Testing and interventions grew endlessly in the s and s Salgado, Important journals were also created: In all types of industrial and practical settings, knowledge of the human factor became indispensable. The worker, his abilities, and his psychophysical constitution became central topics among applied psychologists, who could then give useful advice to workers and employers in order to achieve more efficient work practices.
They also paid a lot of attention to the basic dimensions of individual human differences that built the framework for other phenomena, like the fatigue effect, the wellbeing of the worker, more effective selection procedures, job analysis, and the study of time and motion in working activities, as salient factors in this applied field. Typologies and profession descriptions and analyses were among the main benefits. But unexpectedly, informal aspects of organizations and the interactions of members inside a group appeared as highly salient factors influencing productivity and became major objectives for research.
Some studies on work efficiency carried out among employees of the Western Electric Co. In a large series of experiments conducted between and by researchers at the company and the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences, they tried to determine the effect of workplace illumination on productivity, with poor results. Dickson studied a sample of women working in a relay assembly test room—both an experimental and a control group; they were measured on certain tasks: Although harsh criticism ended these studies on the grounds of some ethical and methodological flaws Adair, , psychologists began to put the emphasis now on human relations in industry, stressing the importance of a holistic approach to work problems.
Most of the contributions made by the Chicago school on social problems are characterized by the attention paid to environment, mainly seen as a social network to be analyzed in terms of member interactions, all members belonging to one effective totality. There the anthropologist William Lloyd Warner — with J. Low, working on modern urban life, wrote about the factory in connection with society, whose extra-organizational variables technological and market changes, religion, race, and social class threw light on productive processes.
Detailed study of many types of interactions, mainly through interviews and surveys, would permit an understanding of work from a human perspective. A great and newer impulse to this holistic perspective proceeded a few years later from the contributions of Kurt Lewin who immigrated to the U.
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World War II — deeply changed the scenery of historical life, including psychology. In accordance with the experiences of World War I, the involved armies required rapid selection of people for all sorts of jobs, and convenient tests were applied by psychologists according to their acquired competences. In Germany, the assignment was done by a military psychology Wehrmacht Psychologie created in Geuter, , p.
After the war, many changes took place in the social context: Of course, many countries had to rebuild their economies, specifically the losing ones. Finally, an international confrontation between communism and capitalism, in both politics and economy, marked out the new era. New social phenomena then appeared: New technologies of information and communication rapidly began to change most human activities. Computers, whose roots can be traced back into the early 20th century, had already played an important role in the days of war Colosus, , in the U.
New types of economic structures began operating all over Western countries, giving a great shot in the arm to economies. New potentials emerged for trade and industry. New terms forcefully emerged at that time: The area of industrial activities was widened to receive those productive groups mainly operating with information and communication. Industrial and organizational psychology became the new discipline that has continuously grown since then. It symbolized the new zeitgeist. Annual Review of Psychology reviewed organizational studies for the first time in Significant books revealed the new inspiration: Argyris , Personality and Organization , J.
Simon , Organizations , and E. Schein , Organizational Psychology , among others. New emphasis on organizations and management and their major tasks were studied by Peter Drucker — in his The Practice of Management and in many other works. Topics like direction, leadership, new forms of producing goods, and problems of worker adaptation to the new world demanded a deeper scientific understanding. Among the most influential directions in these studies, according to some specialists Peiro, , were 1 the sociotechnical and holistic perspective, 2 the humanistic and motivational approach, and 3 the cognitive view of decision processes.
This doctrine stressed the importance of technology in all work processes. Its influence on social adjustment and the wellbeing of workers reinforced the view of organizations as systems in which a continuous interaction takes place between instruments and human operators. He was first at Iowa working on child behavior, and then at MIT, from where he moved to the University of Michigan, where he carried out a Gestalt-type research program on social groups and organizational behavior.
Leadership, the need for achievement, and levels of aspiration appeared as important factors influencing group efficiency, self-esteem, and satisfaction.
Work Psychology and Organizational Behaviour: Managing the Individual at Work
He differentiated three possible climates within a group—authoritarian, democratic, and laissez faire—and then, with his collaborators R. White , he evaluated their effects on various social environments. An important development of these ideas was the theory and practice of group dynamics, which focuses on processes occurring either within a group or between groups. The war experience provided an opportunity to study social attitudes and group mentality in The American Soldier by Samuel A. Some of these techniques had paved the way to the study of a more general field, organizational development, and its search for better ways to fortify a certain organization, consolidating the network of interactive relationships Hollway, , p.
Work activities, such as a project on coal mining, were examined by Eric L. Trist — , who emphasized the role of interactions between instrumentation, attitudes, and productivity in that process. In it, the motivational aspect of personal behavior was widely considered. Abraham Maslow — is one of its most representative figures. He stressed the importance of motivation in governing human behavior and presented, by means of a well-known pyramid, a hierarchy of motives from physiological on the bottom to self-actualization on the top, through security, belongingness, and self-esteem.
Groups and organizations provide people with security, belongingness, and membership. But organizations might be considered on many occasions as a limiting factor when a conflict breaks out. They should take into account such necessities, humanizing all interactions. These ideas received great attention from another theoretician, Frederick Herzberg — , who built a motivation-hygiene theory, in which human motivation is seen as having a double process, one of satisfaction and one of dissatisfaction, both unrelated and independent.
The former relates the job to personal motivation e. On these grounds, different aspects of the problem have been considered, adding new elements to it. Several theoreticians have developed salient contributions. Let us mention here those of MacGregor, Likert, and Argyris as representative of this way of thinking. Douglas MacGregor — compared two basic ways of being a human in an organization, what he called theory X and theory Y, two different managerial styles.
Theory Y, to the contrary, considers humans as self-directed operators, impelled by their own desires for self-esteem and self-actualization and looking for personal happiness achieved by creative realizations. MacGregor is well aware of the idealization implied in such a theory, but he considers it as an instrument for reaching the Y situation. Such managerial style would promote higher values of humanity in the world of work. Rensis Likert — , once head of the Institute for Social Research at the University of Michigan, found that productivity was largely based on the managerial style adopted in enterprises.
Deeply interested in measurement techniques and their applications to attitudes, he developed some aspects of the Lewinian intellectual legacy. He differentiated four leadership styles—exploitative authoritative, benevolent authoritative, consultative, and participative—with totally different results, the last one being the most beneficial for members and the organization as a whole, as it promotes group cooperation that permits it to attain far-reaching goals.
Last but not least, Chris Argyris — maintained the idea of an organization as an open system interacting with its environment in accordance with L. A degree of excellence would be reached when its members obtain personal enrichment. In such conditions, deviant or faulty behaviors do not take place, and productivity rises to higher levels.
A third line of studies has relied on the cognitive processes of decision-making and the various rationality degrees that may inspire managerial decisions. One important antecedent of such cognitive perspectives was Chester Barnard — in his The Functions of the Executive He relied on the idea that organizations, as systems of conscious activities, largely depended on the executives, whose main function was making rational, purposeful decisions in a quest for success.
When making decisions, they had to combine formal rationality with informal knowledge and experience. A further and deeper analysis of the process was carried out some years later by Herbert Simon — , a Noble Prize winner in economics and a leading researcher in sociology, economy, and computer science. This sort of decision would be dominant in big organizations.
In order to attain certain finalities, humans enter into and remain in organizations. In the last decades of the past century, the process of world globalization began to emerge, but not without internal conflicts. The European Union and Western democracies, allied with the U.
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Large conflicts sprang up, like the Vietnam War — and the Yom Kippur War between Syria and Egypt against Israel ; this was followed by an enormous oil crisis with deep economic consequences throughout the whole world. An enormous technological effort was made by Western societies to lead toward historical movement; the landing of man on the moon U. Apollo XI project, was to become a symbolic icon for a new era. At the same time, giant computers that had appeared during World War II became minicomputers in the s and then personal computers in the s and laid the basis for the internet and the current information society that has propelled the advent of effective globalization.
The introduction of computers in industries and social corporations, and the internationalization of markets and operating companies required more and more flexible and complex organizations. These entities have acquired still greater significance than before in the economic and social world.
At the same time, U. Both old and new paradigms had their echoes within I-O psychology. A fully cognitive organizational approach began to develop, considering both individual minds and organizations as information-processing systems managing physical and symbolic elements and making decisions for solving problems on the basis of previous information. Such activities would take place in many directions: Weick, and many other researchers have pointed to ambiguity as a main trait of social situations that organizations have to deal with.
The study of decisions received new developments from the Nobel Prize winner for economics Daniel Kahneman b. New topics also began to emerge in the field for instance, the influence of values on decision-making, the skills needed for information technology, and cognitive dimensions of performance, as well as the need for new assessment instruments adjusted to the new theoretical lines, among others. Notwithstanding, behavioral theory was still alive in the field.
It should also be noted that the U. Skinner — imagined an organizational utopia in behavioral terms in his novel Walden Two In it, individuals and groups were controlled by operant conditioning that set the rules for the whole community. Some years later, in , W. Political movements and conflicts brought out some new humanitarian perspectives on humankind, work, and the economy.
A decisive step was the approval of the Civil Rights Act , which outlawed any discrimination based on race, age, sex, color, and national origin. More than simply a conventional history of ideas, it is a demonstration of how each emerging school of thought has reflected the search for solutions to particular management problems, within specific social, political and economic contexts. Work Psychology and Organizational Behaviour documents the key developments in the field, from scientific management and industrial psychology, through the human relations movement, to such current concerns as organizational culture, leadership, and human resources management.
Wendy Hollway skillfully examines Work psychology and organizational behaviour: Work Psychology and Organizational Behaviour: Managing the Individual at Work. Hollway, W , Work psychology and organizational behaviour: Have you created a personal profile? Login or create a profile above so that you can save clips, playlists, and searches. Please log in from an authenticated institution or log into your member profile to access the email feature. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without permission in writing from the Publishers.
CQ Press Your definitive resource for politics, policy and people. Back Institutional Login Please choose from an option shown below. Need help logging in? Email Please log in from an authenticated institution or log into your member profile to access the email feature. Chapters Front Matter Subject Index.
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My Background and Reasons for Writing this Book 2. Work Psychology and Other Labels 3. The Status of Knowledge 4. Power, Knowledge, Practice 5.