And those Seleucids fought and battled with it and sought to lay low its horn, but they had no power over it. All the Macedonians and vultures and Seleucids and Ptolemies were gathered together, and there came with them all the sheep of the field, yea, they all came together, and helped each other to break that horn of the ram. According to this theory, the first sentence most likely refers to the death of High Priest Onias III, whose murder is described in 1 Maccabees 3: The "great horn" clearly is not Mattathias , the initiator of the rebellion, as he dies a natural death, described in 1 Maccabees 2: It is also not Alexander the Great, as the great horn is interpreted as a warrior who has fought the Macedonians, Seleucids, and Ptolemies.
Judas Maccabeus BC— BC fought all three of these, with a large number of victories against the Seleucids over a great period of time; "they had no power over it". He is also described as "one great horn among six others on the head of a lamb", possibly referring to Maccabeus's five brothers and Mattathias.
If taken in context of the history from Maccabeus's time, Dillman Chrest Aethiop says the explanation of Verse 13 can be found in 1 Maccabees iii 7; vi. Maccabeus was eventually killed by the Seleucids at the Battle of Elasa, where he faced "twenty thousand foot soldiers and two thousand cavalry". At one time, it was believed this passage might refer to John Hyrcanus ; the only reason for this was that the time between Alexander the Great and John Maccabeus was too short. However, it has been asserted that evidence shows that this section does indeed discuss Maccabeus.
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God was with them to avenge the death. It may also be Jonathan Apphus taking over command of the rebels to battle on after the death of Judas. John Hyrcanus Hyrcanus I , Hasmonean dynasty may also make an appearance; the passage "And all that had been destroyed and dispersed, and all the beasts of the field, and all the birds of the heaven, assembled in that house, and the Lord of the sheep rejoiced with great joy because they were all good and had returned to His house" may describe John's reign as a time of great peace and prosperity.
Certain scholars also claim Alexander Jannaeus of Judaea is alluded to in this book. The end of the book describes the new Jerusalem, culminating in the birth of a Messiah:. And I saw that a white bull was born, with large horns and all the beasts of the field and all the birds of the air feared him and made petition to him all the time. And I saw till all their generations were transformed, and they all became white bulls; and the first among them became a lamb, and that lamb became a great animal and had great black horns on its head; and the Lord of the sheep rejoiced over it and over all the oxen.
Still another interpretation, which has just as much as credibility, is that the last chapters of this section simply refer to the infamous battle of Armageddon , where all of the nations of the world march against Israel; this interpretation is supported by the War Scroll, which describes what this epic battle may be like, according to the group s that existed at Qumran.
This section can be seen as being made up of five subsections, [84] mixed by the final redactor:. Some of the fallen angels that are given in 1 Enoch have other names, such as Rameel 'morning of God' , who becomes Azazel , and is also called Gadriel 'wall of God' in Chapter Another example is that Araqiel 'Earth of God' becomes Aretstikapha 'world of distortion' in Chapter Azaz , as in Azazel , means strength, so the name Azazel can refer to 'strength of God'. But the sense in which it is used most probably means 'impudent' showing strength towards , which results in 'arrogant to God'.
This is also a key point in modern thought that Azazel is Satan. Nathaniel Schmidt states "the names of the angels apparently refer to their condition and functions before the fall," and lists the likely meanings of the angels' names in the Book of Enoch, noting that "the great majority of them are Aramaic. The name suffix -el means 'God' see list of names referring to El , and is used in the names of high-ranking angels. The archangels ' names all include -el , such as Uriel 'flame of God' and Michael 'who is like God'. Another name is given as Gadreel , who is said to have tempted Eve ; Schmidt lists the name as meaning 'the helper of God.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. An ancient Jewish religious work, ascribed by tradition to Enoch, the great-grandfather of Noah. For other writings attributed to Enoch, see Book of Enoch disambiguation. Genesis Exodus Leviticus Numbers Deuteronomy. This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. November Learn how and when to remove this template message. This subsection includes a list of references , related reading or external links , but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this subsection by introducing more precise citations.
December Learn how and when to remove this template message. Charles and 3 Enoch surviving in Hebrew , c. The Encyclopedia of Christianity: The Old Testament Pseudoepigrapha , vol. The Book of Enoch. Davies, Scribes and Schools: The Canonization of the Hebrew Scriptures London: An Ongoing Dialogue of Learning. Historical and Philological Studies on Judaism Vol24 pp. Here the LXX diverges wholly. The writer of 1—5 therefore used the Hebrew text and presumably wrote in Hebrew. Charles, The Book of Enoch London , p. Two passages are central to it The first is Deuteronomy Stone Selected studies in pseudepigrapha and apocrypha with special reference to the Armenian Tradition Studia in Veteris Testamenti Pseudepigrapha No 9 p.
Sidebottom, james, Jude and 2 Peter London: Nelson, , p. Also see Wallace D. Greek Grammar beyond the Basics. The doctrine of salvation in the first letter of Peter. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson; vol 4. On the Apparel of Women De cultu foeminarum I. The Return of the Book of Enoch, Part 1". Milik with Matthew Black. Flint The Greek fragments of Enoch from Qumran cave 7 in ed. A Commentary on the Book of 1 Enoch , Fortress: Boccaccini Enoch and Qumran Origins: Google Books Raleigh's marginal note reads: Scheck; InterVarsity Press, Enoch and the Messiah Son of Man: Revisiting the Book of Parables.
Retrieved 24 February Milik with Matthew Black, ed. Charlesworth and Darrell L. The book of Enoch, or, 1 Enoch. Spirits and the Proclamation of Christ: Prolegomena for the Study of Christian Origins. Calendar and chronology, Jewish and Christian. The Dead Sea Scrolls: Jewish Literature between the Bible and the Mishnah, 2 ed. Books of the Bible. Letter of Baruch Psalms — Category Portal WikiProject Book. Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible. Retrieved from " https: Articles with incomplete citations from November All articles with incomplete citations Webarchive template wayback links Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter CS1 maint: Views Read Edit View history.
In other projects Wikisource. Although the Early Church primarily used the Septuagint or the Targums among Aramaic speakers, the apostles did not leave a defined set of new scriptures; instead the canon of the New Testament developed over time. Groups within Christianity include differing books as part of their sacred writings, most prominent among which are the biblical apocrypha or deuterocanonical books. The books which make up the Christian Old Testament differ between the Catholic see Catholic Bible , Orthodox, and Protestant see Protestant Bible churches, with the Protestant movement accepting only those books contained in the Hebrew Bible, while Catholics and Orthodox have wider canons.
A few groups consider particular translations to be divinely inspired, notably the Greek Septuagint and the Aramaic Peshitta.
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In Eastern Christianity , translations based on the Septuagint still prevail. The Septuagint was generally abandoned in favour of the 10th-century Masoretic Text as the basis for translations of the Old Testament into Western languages. A number of books which are part of the Peshitta or the Greek Septuagint but are not found in the Hebrew Rabbinic Bible i.
Most Protestants term these books as apocrypha. Modern Protestant traditions do not accept the deuterocanonical books as canonical, although Protestant Bibles included them in Apocrypha sections until the s. The Roman Catholic Church recognizes: In addition to those, the Greek and Russian Orthodox Churches recognize the following: Russian and Georgian Orthodox Churches include: There is also 4 Maccabees which is only accepted as canonical in the Georgian Church , but was included by St.
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Jerome in an appendix to the Vulgate , and is an appendix to the Greek Orthodox Bible, and it is therefore sometimes included in collections of the Apocrypha. The Syriac Orthodox tradition includes: The Ethiopian Biblical canon includes: The Anglican Church uses some of the Apocryphal books liturgically. Therefore, editions of the Bible intended for use in the Anglican Church include the Deuterocanonical books accepted by the Catholic Church, plus 1 Esdras , 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh , which were in the Vulgate appendix.
Not all of these works are actually pseudepigraphical. It also refers to books of the New Testament canon whose authorship is misrepresented. The "Old Testament" Pseudepigraphal works include the following: Notable pseudepigraphal works include the Books of Enoch such as 1 Enoch , 2 Enoch , surviving only in Old Slavonic , and 3 Enoch , surviving in Hebrew , c.
These are ancient Jewish religious works, traditionally ascribed to the prophet Enoch , the great-grandfather of the patriarch Noah. They are not part of the biblical canon used by Jews , apart from Beta Israel. Most Christian denominations and traditions may accept the Books of Enoch as having some historical or theological interest or significance.
It has been observed that part of the Book of Enoch is quoted in the Epistle of Jude part of the New Testament but Christian denominations generally regard the Books of Enoch as non-canonical or non-inspired. There arose in some Protestant biblical scholarship an extended use of the term pseudepigrapha for works that appeared as though they ought to be part of the biblical canon, because of the authorship ascribed to them, but which stood outside both the biblical canons recognized by Protestants and Catholics.
These works were also outside the particular set of books that Roman Catholics called deuterocanonical and to which Protestants had generally applied the term Apocryphal. Accordingly, the term pseudepigraphical , as now used often among both Protestants and Roman Catholics allegedly for the clarity it brings to the discussion , may make it difficult to discuss questions of pseudepigraphical authorship of canonical books dispassionately with a lay audience.
To confuse the matter even more, Eastern Orthodox Christians accept books as canonical that Roman Catholics and most Protestant denominations consider pseudepigraphical or at best of much less authority. There exist also churches that reject some of the books that Roman Catholics, Orthodox and Protestants accept. The same is true of some Jewish sects. Many works that are "apocryphal" are otherwise considered genuine. The Old Testament has always been central to the life of the Christian church. Wright says "Jesus himself was profoundly shaped by the scriptures.
They regarded the "holy writings" of the Israelites as necessary and instructive for the Christian, as seen from Paul's words to Timothy 2 Timothy 3: The New Testament is the name given to the second and final portion of the Christian Bible. Jesus is its central figure. The term "New Testament" came into use in the second century during a controversy among Christians over whether or not the Hebrew Bible should be included with the Christian writings as sacred scripture. The New Testament presupposes the inspiration of the Old Testament.
The New Testament is a collection of 27 books [72] of 4 different genres of Christian literature Gospels , one account of the Acts of the Apostles , Epistles and an Apocalypse. These books can be grouped into:. Narrative literature , account and history of the Apostolic age. General epistles , also called catholic epistles. Apocalyptic literature , also called Prophetical. The mainstream consensus is that the New Testament was written in a form of Koine Greek , [73] [74] which was the common language of the Eastern Mediterranean [75] [76] [77] [78] from the Conquests of Alexander the Great — BCE until the evolution of Byzantine Greek c.
The original autographs , that is, the original Greek writings and manuscripts written by the original authors of the New Testament, have not survived. There have been some minor variations, additions or omissions, in some of the texts. When ancient scribes copied earlier books, they sometimes wrote notes on the margins of the page marginal glosses to correct their text — especially if a scribe accidentally omitted a word or line — and to comment about the text. When later scribes were copying the copy, they were sometimes uncertain if a note was intended to be included as part of the text.
The three main textual traditions of the Greek New Testament are sometimes called the Alexandrian text-type generally minimalist , the Byzantine text-type generally maximalist , and the Western text-type occasionally wild. Together they comprise most of the ancient manuscripts. The Old Testament canon entered into Christian use in the Greek Septuagint translations and original books, and their differing lists of texts. In addition to the Septuagint, Christianity [ vague ] subsequently added various writings that would become the New Testament.
Somewhat different lists of accepted works continued to develop in antiquity. In the 4th century a series of synods produced a list of texts equal to the 39, 46, 51, or book canon of the Old Testament and to the book canon of the New Testament that would be subsequently used to today, most notably the Synod of Hippo in CE.
With the benefit of hindsight it can be said that this process effectively set the New Testament canon, although there are examples of other canonical lists in use after this time. The Protestant Old Testament of today has a book canon — the number of books though not the content varies from the Jewish Tanakh only because of a different method of division — while the Roman Catholic Church recognizes 46 books 51 books with some books combined into 46 books as the canonical Old Testament. Some include 2 Esdras. The Anglican Church also recognizes a longer canon. The New Testament writers assumed the inspiration of the Old Testament, probably earliest stated in 2 Timothy 3: There are 81 books in the Ethiopian Orthodox Bible.
The three books of Meqabyan are not to be confused with the books of Maccabees. The order of the other books is somewhat different from other groups', as well. The Second Epistle to Timothy says that "all scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness". Within these broad beliefs many schools of hermeneutics operate. Jewish antiquity attests to belief in sacred texts, [85] [86] and a similar belief emerges in the earliest of Christian writings.
Various texts of the Bible mention divine agency in relation to its writings. The original texts of the Tanakh were mainly in Hebrew, with some portions in Aramaic. There are several different ancient versions of the Tanakh in Hebrew, mostly differing by spelling, and the traditional Jewish version is based on the version known as Aleppo Codex.
Even in this version there are words which are traditionally read differently from written, because the oral tradition is considered more fundamental than the written one, and presumably mistakes had been made in copying the text over the generations. The primary biblical text for early Christians was the Septuagint. In addition, they translated the Hebrew Bible into several other languages. Translations were made into Syriac, Coptic , Ethiopic , and Latin, among other languages. The Latin translations were historically the most important for the Church in the West, while the Greek-speaking East continued to use the Septuagint translations of the Old Testament and had no need to translate the New Testament.
The earliest Latin translation was the Old Latin text, or Vetus Latina , which, from internal evidence, seems to have been made by several authors over a period of time. It was based on the Septuagint, and thus included books not in the Hebrew Bible. According to the Latin Decretum Gelasianum also known as the Gelasian Decree , thought to be of a 6th-century document [94] [95] of uncertain authorship and of pseudepigraphal papal authority variously ascribed to Pope Gelasius I , Pope Damasus I , or Pope Hormisdas [96] [97] [98] but reflecting the views of the Roman Church by that period, [99] the Council of Rome in AD under Pope Damasus I — assembled a list of books of the Bible.
Damasus commissioned Saint Jerome to produce a reliable and consistent text by translating the original Greek and Hebrew texts into Latin. This translation became known as the Latin Vulgate Bible , in the fourth century AD although Jerome expressed in his prologues to most deuterocanonical books that they were non- canonical.
Since the Protestant Reformation , Bible translations for many languages have been made. John Riches, professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism at the University of Glasgow, provides the following view of the diverse historical influences of the Bible:.
It has inspired some of the great monuments of human thought, literature, and art; it has equally fuelled some of the worst excesses of human savagery, self-interest, and narrow-mindedness. It has inspired men and women to acts of great service and courage, to fight for liberation and human development; and it has provided the ideological fuel for societies which have enslaved their fellow human beings and reduced them to abject poverty.
It has, perhaps above all, provided a source of religious and moral norms which have enabled communities to hold together, to care for, and to protect one another; yet precisely this strong sense of belonging has in turn fuelled ethnic, racial, and international tension and conflict. In Islam , the Bible is held to reflect true unfolding revelation from God ; but revelation which had been corrupted or distorted in Arabic: Members of other religions may also seek inspiration from the Bible.
For example, Rastafaris view the Bible as essential to their religion [] and Unitarian Universalists view it as "one of many important religious texts". Biblical criticism refers to the investigation of the Bible as a text, and addresses questions such as authorship, dates of composition, and authorial intention. It is not the same as criticism of the Bible , which is an assertion against the Bible being a source of information or ethical guidance, or observations that the Bible may have translation errors.
In the 17th century Thomas Hobbes collected the current evidence to conclude outright that Moses could not have written the bulk of the Torah. Shortly afterwards the philosopher Baruch Spinoza published a unified critical analysis, arguing that the problematic passages were not isolated cases that could be explained away one by one, but pervasive throughout the five books, concluding that it was "clearer than the sun at noon that the Pentateuch was not written by Moses.
Biblical archaeology is the archaeology that relates to and sheds light upon the Hebrew Scriptures and the Christian Greek Scriptures or the "New Testament". It is used to help determine the lifestyle and practices of people living in biblical times. There are a wide range of interpretations in the field of biblical archaeology. One broad division includes biblical maximalism which generally takes the view that most of the Old Testament or the Hebrew Bible is based on history although it is presented through the religious viewpoint of its time.
It is considered to be the opposite of biblical minimalism which considers the Bible to be a purely post-exilic 5th century BCE and later composition. Even among those scholars who adhere to biblical minimalism, the Bible is a historical document containing first-hand information on the Hellenistic and Roman eras , and there is universal scholarly consensus that the events of the 6th century BCE Babylonian captivity have a basis in history. The historicity of the biblical account of the history of ancient Israel and Judah of the 10th to 7th centuries BCE is disputed in scholarship.
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The biblical account of the 8th to 7th centuries BCE is widely, but not universally, accepted as historical, while the verdict on the earliest period of the United Monarchy 10th century BCE and the historicity of David is unclear. Archaeological evidence providing information on this period, such as the Tel Dan Stele , can potentially be decisive.
The biblical account of events of the Exodus from Egypt in the Torah , and the migration to the Promised Land and the period of Judges are not considered historical in scholarship. The Bible used by Abraham Lincoln for his oath of office during his first inauguration in Most old Bibles were illuminated, they were manuscripts in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, such as decorated initials , borders marginalia and miniature illustrations. Up to the twelfth century, most manuscripts were produced in monasteries in order to add to the library or after receiving a commission from a wealthy patron.
The audience feels the effects of the previous notes and melodies, and can intentionally reflect on what they have heard. Silence does not hinder musical excellence but can enhance the sounds of instruments and vocals within a given musical composition. In his book Sound and Silence , the composer John Paynter says, "the dramatic effect of silence has long been appreciated by composers. After the pause, the music continues to the words: Musical silences may also convey humour.
Haydn 's Quartet in E flat, Op. Barry Cooper , p. He cites the start of the second movement of the Ninth Symphony , where the silences contribute to a powerful sense of propulsion: The substitution of such a note by a whole-bar rest therefore gives the effect of a suppressed sound, as if one were about to speak but then refrains at the last moment.
The 'suppressed sound' is then repeated in bar 4, and 'developed' by being doubled in bars 7 and 8. Much has been said about the harmony of the opening to Wagner 's opera Tristan und Isolde , which Taruskin , p. Some of the most effective musical silences are very short, lasting barely a fraction of a second.
In the spirited and energetic finale of his Symphony No. During the 20th century, composers explored further the expressive potential of silence in their music. Eric Walter White , p.
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John Paynter , p. Woodwinds jump, growl and shriek. Eight solemn bell strokes echo and die. This is music of the high hills, music for vast spaces: We can feel the awe and the majesty of the High Alps and the great churches. The instrumental sounds are vast the silences are deep. The words of St John are alive in the music, and through these sounds Messiaen reveals himself and his vision. Though first performed on the piano , the piece was composed for any instrument or instruments and is structured in three movements.
The length of each movement is not fixed by the composer, but the total length of the combination of three movements is. The score instructs the performer s to remain silent throughout the piece. There are telling examples of the use of silence in jazz. A frequently used effect, known as " stop-time ", places silences at moments where listeners or dancers might expect a strong beat, contributing to the syncopation.