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Ohjaus Strategiat, linjaukset, hallinnonalan ohjaus. Finno-Ugric is sometimes used as a synonym for Uralic, though Finno-Ugric is widely understood to exclude the Samoyedic languages. In recent times, linguists often place the Urheimat original homeland of the Proto-Uralic language in the vicinity of the Volga River , west of the Urals, close to the Urheimat of the Indo-European languages , or to the east and southeast of the Urals.
Zsirai place it between the Volga and Kama Rivers. Itkonen, the ancestral area extended to the Baltic Sea. Hajdu has suggested a homeland in western and northwestern Siberia.
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The first plausible mention of a Uralic people is in Tacitus 's Germania c. In the late 15th century, European scholars noted the resemblance of the names Hungaria and Yugria , the names of settlements east of the Ural. They assumed a connection but did not seek linguistic evidence. The affinity of Hungarian and Finnish was first proposed in the late 17th century. Three candidates can be credited for the discovery: Vogel's unpublished study of the relationship, commissioned by Cosimo III of Tuscany, was clearly the most modern of these: Stiernhelm commented on the similarities of Sami, Estonian and Finnish, and also on a few similar words between Finnish and Hungarian.
This proposal received some of its initial impetus from the fact that these languages, unlike most of the other languages spoken in Europe, are not part of what is now known as the Indo-European family. In , Swedish professor Olof Rudbeck proposed about etymologies connecting Finnish and Hungarian, of which about 40 are still considered valid. All the main groups of the Uralic languages were already identified here.
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Hungarian intellectuals especially were not interested in the theory and preferred to assume connections with Turkic tribes, an attitude characterized by Merritt Ruhlen as due to "the wild unfettered Romanticism of the epoch". Sajnovics published his results in , arguing for a relationship based on several grammatical features. Up to the beginning of the 19th century, knowledge on the Uralic languages spoken in Russia had remained restricted to scanty observations by travelers. Already Finnish historian Henrik Gabriel Porthan had stressed that further progress would require dedicated field missions.
Petersburg as the chief northern center of research of the Uralic languages. The Uralic family comprises nine undisputed groups with no consensus classification between them. Some of the proposals are listed in the next section. An agnostic approach treats them as separate branches.
Uralic languages
Traces of Finno-Ugric substrata, especially in toponymy, in the northern part of European Russia have been proposed as evidence for even more extinct Uralic languages. All Uralic languages are thought to have descended, through independent processes of language change , from Proto-Uralic. The internal structure of the Uralic family has been debated since the family was first proposed.
A traditional classification of the Uralic languages has existed since the late 19th century. Donner's model is as follows:.
At Donner's time, the Samoyedic languages were still poorly known, and he was not able to address their position. As they became better known in the early 20th century, they were found to be quite divergent, and they were assumed to have separated already early on. The terminology adopted for this was "Uralic" for the entire family, " Finno-Ugric " for the non-Samoyedic languages though "Finno-Ugric" has, to this day, remained in use also as a synonym for the whole family.
Little explicit evidence has however been presented in favour of Donner's model since his original proposal, and numerous alternate schemes have been proposed. Especially in Finland, there has been a growing tendency to reject the Finno-Ugric intermediate protolanguage. The Finno-Permic grouping still holds some support, though the arrangement of its subgroups is a matter of some dispute. Mordvinic is commonly seen as particularly closely related to or part of Finno-Samic. Lexicostatistics has been used in defense of the traditional family tree.
A recent re-evaluation of the evidence [47] however fails to find support for Finno-Ugric and Ugric, suggesting four lexically distinct branches Finno-Permic, Hungarian, Ob-Ugric and Samoyedic. One alternate proposal for a family tree, with emphasis on the development of numerals, is as follows: Another proposed tree, more divergent from the standard, focusing on consonant isoglosses which does not consider the position of the Samoyedic languages is presented by Viitso , [49] and refined in Viitso The grouping of the four bottom-level branches remains to some degree open to interpretation, with competing models of Finno-Saamic vs.
Viitso finds no evidence for a Finno-Permic grouping. Extending this approach to cover the Samoyedic languages suggests affinity with Ugric, resulting in the aforementioned East Uralic grouping, as it also shares the same sibilant developments. Finno-Ugric consonant developments after Viitso ; Samoyedic changes after Sammallahti [51]. The inverse relationship between consonant gradation and medial lenition of stops the pattern also continuing within the three families where gradation is found is noted by Helimski A computational phylogenetic study by Honkola, et al.
Estimated divergence dates from Honkola, et al. Basic vocabulary of about words, including body parts e. The following is a very brief selection of cognates in basic vocabulary across the Uralic family, which may serve to give an idea of the sound changes involved.