L'identification de telles occurrences fait partie de l'analyse variationniste, mais naturellement elles ne figureront pas dans la quantification des occurrences dans les contextes variables. Sankoff nous soulignerons qu'une analyse variationniste doit tenir compte de la valeur communicative des variantes. Notons deux choses au passage: Des contraintes linguistiques et pragmatiques sur la variation dans l'interrogation directe.
Les contextes dans lesquels [SVQ] n'est pas acceptable incluent les suivants:. Les contraintes linguistiques et pragmatiques de ce genre peuvent utilement, nous. Est-ce que tu viens? Meaning and form, Londres, Longman. The sociallife of language, Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press. La variation en syntaxe. Le cas des interrogatives This article presents the case for the sociolinguistic variationist analysis of variable areas of grammar, such as French interrogatives.
La variation dans l'interrogation directe et son traitement dans des grammaires [link] 2. Des contraintes linguistiques et pragmatiques sur la variation dans l'interrogation directe [link] 9.
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Conclusion [link] Bibliographie [link]. Introduction La sociolinguistique existe, la grammaire aussi: She done ate up all of my potato chips. There is no cat that can get in any coop. A grammar of Aranese by Aitor Carrera, published in in Lleida , presents the same view. The exclusion of Catalan from the Occitan sphere, even though Catalan is closely related, is justified because there has been a consciousness of its being different from Occitan since the later Middle Ages and because the elaboration Ausbau processes of Catalan and Occitan including Gascon have been quite distinct since the 20th century.
Nevertheless, other scholars point out that the process that led to the affirmation of Catalan as a distinct language from Occitan started during the period when the pressure to include Catalan-speaking areas in a mainstream Spanish culture was at its greatest. The answer to the question of whether Gascon or Catalan should be considered dialects of Occitan or separate languages has long been a matter of opinion or convention, rather than based on scientific ground. However, two recent studies support Gascon's being considered a distinct language. For the very first time, a quantifiable, statistics-based approach was applied by Stephan Koppelberg in attempt to solve this issue.
Chambon Sorbonne University, Paris demonstrated that the formation of Proto-Gascon was already complete at the eve of the 7th century, whereas Proto-Occitan was not yet formed at that time. Jules Ronjat has sought to characterize Occitan by 19 principal criteria, as generalized as possible. Of those, 11 are phonetic, five morphologic, one syntactic, and two lexical. Close rounded vowels are rare or absent in Occitan.
Unlike French, it is a pro-drop language , allowing the omission of the subject canti: I sing; cantas you sing. Most features of Occitan are shared with either French or Catalan , or both. Examples of dialect-specific features of the northerly dialects shared with French, but not Catalan:. Examples of dialect-specific features of the southerly dialects or some of them shared with Catalan, but not French:. Examples of Gascon -specific features not shared with French or Catalan:.
A comparison of terms and word counts between languages is not easy, as it is impossible to count the number of words in a language. See Lexicon , Lexeme , Lexicography for more information. Some have claimed around , words exist in the Occitan language, [75] a number comparable to English the Webster's Third New International Dictionary , Unabridged with addenda reaches , words, as does the Oxford English Dictionary, Second edition. The Merriam-Webster Web site estimates that the number is somewhere between , and 1 million words. A comparison of the lexical content can find more subtle differences between the languages.
The language went through an eclipse during the Industrial Revolution , as the vocabulary of the countryside became less important. At the same time, it was disparaged as a patois. Nevertheless, Occitan has also incorporated new words into its lexicon to describe the modern world. One interesting and useful feature of the Occitan language is its virtually infinite ability to create new words through a number of interchangeable and embeddable suffixes, giving the original terms a whole array of semantic nuances.
The separation of Catalan from Occitan is seen by some [ citation needed ] as largely politically rather than linguistically motivated. However, the variety that has become standard Catalan differs from the one that has become standard Occitan in a number of ways. Here are just a few examples:. Despite these differences, Occitan and Catalan remain more or less mutually comprehensible , especially when written — more so than either is with Spanish or French, for example, although this is mainly a consequence of using the classical orthographical norm of the Occitan, which is precisely focused in showing the similarities between the Occitan dialects with Catalan.
Occitan and Catalan form a common diasystem or a common Abstandsprache , which is called Occitano-Romance , according to the linguist Pierre Bec.
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However, the regions are not equal in terms of language speakers. According to Bec pp. One of the most notable passages of Occitan in Western literature occurs in the 26th canto of Dante 's Purgatorio in which the troubadour Arnaut Daniel responds to the narrator:. The Spanish playwright Lope de Rueda included a Gascon servant for comical effect in one of his short pieces, La generosa paliza. So does the best-selling novel Labyrinth by English author Kate Mosse. It is set in Carcassonne , where she owns a house and spends half of the year. The French composer Joseph Canteloube created five sets of folk songs entitled Songs of the Auvergne , in which the lyrics are in the Auvergne dialect of Occitan.
The orchestration strives to conjure vivid pastoral scenes of yesteryear. Michael Crichton features Occitan in his Timeline novel. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Old Occitan and Occitan literature. This section includes a list of references , but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this section by introducing more precise citations. July Learn how and when to remove this template message. Occitan phonology and Catalan phonology. Occitan conjugation and Catalan conjugation.
France portal Italy portal Spain portal Language portal. Revue de Linguistique Romane in French.
Observation des pratiques linguistiques. Oxford English Dictionary 3rd ed. Subscription or UK public library membership required. Retrieved 5 March Dictionary of Languages 1st ed.
Retrieved 8 November Retrieved 17 February Presses Universitaires de France. Des langues romanes , Duculot, , , p.
Occitan language
Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education , , p. Language and nationalism in Europe , , p. Of some 12 to 13 million inhabitants in the area, it is estimated 48 per cent understand Occitan, 28 per cent can speak it, about 9 per cent of the population use it on a daily basis, 13 per cent can read and 6 per cent can write the language. Archived from the original on 9 November Retrieved 6 March Oxford University Press, pp.
L'approche variationniste et la description de la grammaire du français : le cas des interrogatives
Retrieved 15 October But phonetic, morphological, syntactical and lexical differences are not such that a person quite perfectly fluent in one of our dialects would not be able to have a conversation with another person speaking another dialect with an equally perfect fluency. For a discussion of the unity of the Occitan diasystem in structural linguistics see Bec , pp.
The close ties between Gascon and others Occitan dialects have been demonstrated through a common diasystem. Revue de Linguistique Romane, in French. La langue occitane , coll. Presses Universitaires de France [1st ed. Language policy in France. Asturian Cantabrian Extremaduran Leonese Mirandese. Central , Sardinian and Eastern. Italics indicate extinct languages Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left. Occitano-Romance languages and dialects.
Occitan language - Wikipedia
Languedocien excepting Southern Languedocien. Catalan Gascon including Aranese Southern Languedocien. Retrieved from " https: Views Read Edit View history. In other projects Wikimedia Commons. This page was last edited on 17 December , at By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. France , Spain , Italy , Monaco. This article contains IPA phonetic symbols.