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Some universals in language use [Reprint]. The developmental path to phonological focus-marking in Dutch. Production, perception and comprehension pp. Intonational realization of topic and focus in child Dutch. Journal of Child Language, 38 , Evidence for an off-ramp analysis of Dutch Intonation. The role of intonation in online reference resolution in a second language. Studies presented to M. Bert Schouten on the occasion of his 65th birthday pp. Polynomial modeling of child and adult intonation in German spontaneous speech. Language and Speech, 54 , Ambiguous pronoun resolution in L1 and L2 German and Dutch.

Verarbeitung und Disambiguierung pronominaler Referenz in der Fremdsprache Deutsch: The role of word-stress and intonation in word recognition in Dutch and month-olds. Lexical interactions in non-native speech comprehension: Evidence from electro-encephalography, eye-tracking, and functional magnetic resonance imaging.

Language-specific encoding of placement events in gestures. Communicative difficulties and their solutions in second-language use. Language and body in the material world pp. Thinking, speaking, and gesturing about motion in more than one language. Where does the delay in L2 picture naming come from? Psycholinguistic and neurocognitive evidence on second language word production. Language and Cognitive Processes, 26 , Spracherwerb und Kinderliteratur [Special Issue].

The role of input frequency and semantic transparency in the acquisition of verb meaning: Evidence from placement verbs in Tamil and Dutch. Plausibility and recovery from garden paths in L2 sentence processing. Applied Psycholinguistics, 32 , Intonational marking of focus in different word orders in German children.

Variable verb placement in second-language German and French: Evidence from production and elicited imitation of finite and nonfinite negated sentences. The thickness of pitch: Crossmodal metaphors in Farsi, Turkish and Zapotec. Putting things in places: Developmental consequences of linguistic typology. A quantitative investigation of the prosody of Verum Focus in Italian.

Verb placement in second language acquisition: Experimental evidence for the different behavior of auxiliary and lexical verbs. Intonation of Finnish verbs. Speech Prosody , , Intonation of 'now' in resolving scope ambiguity in English and Dutch. Journal of Phonetics, 38 , Changes in encoding of path of motion after acquisition of a second language. Cognitive Linguistics, 21 2 , Questions and their responses in Tzeltal.

Journal of Pragmatics, 42 , Todo el mundo tiene que mentir en Tzeltal: Ab wann nutzen Kinder die Intonation zum Ausdruck neuer Information? Is there really an asymmetry in the acquisition of the focus-to-accentuation mapping? Lingua, , Intonational encoding of focus in Toulousian French. Studies on intonation and information structure in child and adult German. The acquisition of negation. Given claims about new topics: How Romance and Germanic speakers link changed and maintained information in narrative discourse.

Journal of Pragmatics, 42 12 , Lexical competition in nonnative speech comprehension. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 22 , Methodological reflections on gesture analysis in second language acquisition and bilingualism research. Second Language Research, 26 1 , Gestures in language development. The earliest stages of language learning. The earliest stages of language learning [Special Issue]. Language Learning, 60 Supplement s2. What gestures reveal about the development of semantic distinctions in Dutch children's placement verbs.

Gestures and some key issues in the study of language development. Adult language learning after minimal exposure to an unknown natural language. Language Learning, 60 S2 , Do language-specific categories shape conceptual processing? Mandarin classifier distinctions influence eye gaze behavior, but only during linguistic processing. Language Learning, 60 S2 , v. The earliest stages of language learning: Animacy affects the processing of subject—object ambiguities in the second language: Evidence from self-paced reading with German second language learners of Dutch.

Applied Psycholinguistics, 31 4 , Real-time correlates of phonological quantity reveal unity of tonal and non-tonal languages. Plos One, 5 9 , e Begleitbuch zur Ausstellung pp. On times and arguments. Linguistics, 48 , Typen und Konzepte des Spracherwerbs. International annual for lexicography pp. Activation and persistence of implicit causality information in spoken language comprehension.

Experimental Psychology, 57 , Three-year-olds are sensitive to semantic prominence during online spoken language comprehension: A visual world study of pronoun resolution. Language and Cognitive Processes, 25 , Parsing the L2 input, an overview: Sprachen der Kinder - Sprachen im Klassenzimmer 2. Phonetic tone signals phonological quantity and word structure.

Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, , Formation of category representations in superior temporal sulcus. Functional connectivity between brain regions involved in learning words of a new language. Brain and Language, , Universals and typological comparisons. Research in the tradition of Dan Isaac Slobin pp. Language as mind tools: Learning how to think through speaking. Research in the traditions of Dan Slobin pp. Some universals in language usage [chapter 1, reprint]. Intonation and reference maintenance in Turkish learners of Dutch: Perception of paralinguistic intonational meaning in a second language.

Language Learning, 59 2 , The phonetics of sentence-initial topic and focus in adult and child Dutch. Interactions and interrelations pp. An event-related potential study on changes of violation and error responses during morphosyntactic learning. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21 3 , Plasticity of grammatical recursion in German learners of Dutch. Language and Cognitive Processes, 24 , The prosodic marking of topical referents in the German "Vorfeld" by children and adults.

The Linguistic Review, 26 , Stepping stones and stumbling blocks: Why negation accelerates and additive particles delay the acquisition of finiteness in German. Functional categories in learner language. Accessibility and topicality in children's use of word order. Factoring out the parallelism effect in VP-ellipsis: Second Language Research, 25 , Why some spatial semantic categories are harder to learn than others: The typological prevalence hypothesis. Gestures and the development of semantic representations in first and second language acquisition. Reconstructing verb meaning in a second language: How English speakers of L2 Dutch talk and gesture about placement.

Annual Review of Cognitive Linguistics, 7 , Why gestures are relevant to the bilingual mental lexicon. Attention to speech-accompanying gestures: Eye movements and information uptake. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 33 4 , Research techniques for the study of code-switching. Inflectional entropy in Slovak. Slovak Academy of Sciences. Processing subject-object ambiguities in L2 Dutch: A self-paced reading study with German L2 learners of Dutch. Language Learning, 59 1 , Finiteness in children with SLI: The acquisition of functional categories in child L1 and adult L2 acquisition.

Exploiting degrees of inflectional ambiguity: Stem form and the time course of morphological processing.

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Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35 1 , Finiteness, universal grammar, and the language faculty. How time is encoded. Untutored second language acquisition. The expression of time. Getting the inside story: Learning to talk about containment in Tzeltal and Hindi. Studies in honor of Melissa Bowerman pp.

Paradigmatic and extraparadigmatic morphology in the mental lexicon: Experimental evidence for a dissociation. The mental lexicon, 4 1 , Gaze, questioning and culture. The origins of syntax in discourse: A case study of Tok Pisin relatives [reprint of article in Language]. Does finiteness mark assertion? A picture selection study with Turkish learners and native speakers of German.

The acquisition of finiteness by Turkish learners of German and Turkish learners of French: Investigating knowledge of forms and functions in production and comprehension. Universals and cultural variation in turn-taking in conversation. New method for delexicalization and its application to prosodic tagging for text-to-speech synthesis. Finiteness in Dutch as a second language. Light verbs and the acquisition of finiteness and negation in Dutch as a second language. Temporal adverbials, negation and finiteness in Dutch as a second language: IRAL, 47 2 , Differences or fundamental differences?

New perspectives in analyzing aspectual distinctions across languages. Syntactic priming in German—English bilinguals during sentence comprehension. Neuroimage, 46 , The development of facial expressions of emotion in Indian culture [meeting abstract]. Empirische Forschung und Theoriebildung: Mixed-effects modeling with crossed random effects for subjects and items. Journal of Memory and Language, 59 4 , Crosslinguistic perspectives on argument structure: Implications for learnability pp.

The acquisition of the English causative alternation. Now move X into cell Y: Gesture viewpoint in Japanese and English: Cross-linguistic interactions between two languages in one speaker. Gesture, 8 2 , Bidirectional crosslinguistic influence in L1-L2 encoding of manner in speech and gesture.

Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 30 2 , Up, down, and across the land: Landscape terms and place names in Tzeltal. Verb specificity and argument realization in Tzeltal child language. Online evidence from discourse processing. Two types of definites: Evidence for presupposition cost. What inferences can tell us about the given-new distinction. In Proceedings of the 18th International Congress of Linguists pp. Slower-than-normal syntactic processing in agrammatic Broca's aphasia: Journal of Neurolinguistics, 21 2 , Encoding interrogativity intonationally in a second language. The acquisition of verb compounding in Mandarin Chinese.

Morphological paradigms in language processing and language disorders. Transactions of the Philological Society, 99 2 , Words that second language learners are likely to hear, read, and use. Language and Cognition, 11 1 , How useful are polynomials for analyzing intonation? In Proceedings of Interspeech pp. Age effects on the process of L2 acquisition? Evidence from the acquisition of negation and finiteness in L2 German. Language Learning, 58 1 , Kleine Unterschiede in den Lernvoraussetzungen beim ungesteuerten Zweitspracherwerb: Welche Bereiche der Zielsprache Deutsch sind besonders betroffen?

Perspectives on second language acquisition at different ages. Der Erwerb der Verbflexion in Kindesalter. La structure informationelle chez les apprenants L2 [Special Issue]. In defense of Max Planck [Letters to the editor]. Science Magazine, , Processing of language switches in auditory sentence comprehension. Journal of Neuroscience, 28 18 , Gestures, L2 learners, and grammar. Second language acquisition and classroom research pp. Gestures and second language acquisition. Gestures in language development [Special Issue]. Cognitive and neural prerequisites for time in language: Cognitive and neural prerequisites for time in language pp.

Language Learning, 58 suppl. Introduction to gesture and SLA: Toward an integrated approach. Learning to talk and gesture about motion in French. First Language, 28 2 , Cognitive and neural prerequisites for time in language. Cognitive and neural prerequisites for time in language [Special Issue]. Comparing the acquisition of finiteness: Unimpaired sentence comprehension after anterior temporal cortex resection. Neuropsychologia, 46 4 , De gustibus est disputandum! Die Werke der Sprache: Sprache innerhalb und ausserhalb der Schule. Time in language, language in time.

Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik [Special Issue]. The cross-linguistic categorization of everyday events: A study of cutting and breaking. Cognition, 2 , Toward an integrated approach [Special Issue]. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 30 2. Word order and information status in child language. Cognition, , Acquisition of evidentiality and source monitoring. Development of cross-linguistic variation in speech and gesture: Developmental Psychology, 44 4 , Processing temporal constraints and some implications for the investigation of second language sentence processing and acquisition.

Online pronoun resolution in L2 discourse: L1 influence and general learner effects. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 30 3 , How speakers interrupt themselves in managing problems in speaking: Cognition, 3 , Korpora in de Zweitspracherwerbsforschung: Internetzugang zu Daten des ungesteuerten Zweitspracherwerbs. Planning, collecting, exploring and archiving longitudinal L2 data: Experiences from the P-MoLL project. Constructing knowledge spaces from linguistic resources.

From lexical semantics to formal ontologies and back. Language-specific and universal influences in children's syntactic packaging of manner and path: A comparison of English, Japanese, and Turkish. Dispositional verbs and locative predications in two Mayan languages. Linguistics, 45 5 , Containment, support, and beyond: Constructing topological spatial categories in first language acquisition. Language-specific spatial categorization in first language acquisition [Reprint]. Crosslinguistic influence in first and second languages: Convergence in speech and gesture.

Cutting and breaking verbs in Tzeltal.

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Cognitive Linguistics, 18 2 , Culture-specific influences on semantic development Acquiring the Tzeltal 'benefactive' construction. Child language acquisition in Mesoamerica pp. Principles of person reference in Tzeltal conversation. Linguistic, cultural, and social perspectives pp. Die Grammatik sprachlicher Missachtung pp. Intonational realisation of topic and focus by Dutch-acquiring 4- to 5-year-olds. Language-specificity in the perception of continuation intonation. Phonetic and behavioural studies in word and sentence prosody pp.

Intonation of early two-word utterances in Dutch. Pitch accent type matters for online processing of information status: Evidence from natural and synthetic speech. The Linguistic Review, 24 2 , Encoding and categorizing cutting and breaking events in Mandarin. An inverse relation between event-related and time—frequency violation responses in sentence processing.

Zweitspracherwerb bei Kindern und Jugendlichen: Tagesspiegel, , B6-B6. Acceptable ungrammaticality in sentence matching. Second Language Research, 23 2 , Processing wh-dependencies in a second language: A cross-modal priming study. Second Language Research, 23 1 , Effects of sentence context in L2 natural speech comprehension. Nijmegen CNS, 2 , Spatial and temporal analysis of fMRI data on word and sentence reading. European Journal of Neuroscience, 26 7 , German 5-year-olds' intonational marking of information status.

Brain imaging studies of language production. Handedness and fMRI-activation patterns in sentence processing. NeuroReport, 18 13 , Relations between syntactic encoding and co-speech gestures: Implications for a model of speech and gesture production. Language and Cognitive Processes, 22 8 , Zwei Leitgedanken zu "Sprache und Erkenntnis". Sprachliche Perspektivierung [Special Issue].

Infant pointing months in different cultures. Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics. Cutting and breaking events: A crosslinguistic perspective [Special Issue]. Cognitive Linguistics, 18 2. The semantic categories of cutting and breaking events: How similar are semantic categories in closely related languages? A comparison of cutting and breaking in four Germanic languages. Cutting, breaking, and tearing verbs in Hindi and Tamil.

The linguistic encoding of multiple-participant events [Special Issue]. The linguistic encoding of multiple-participant events. Linguistics, 45 3 , How does linguistic framing of events influence co-speech gestures? Insights from crosslinguistic variations and similarities. Explaining variation in children's early verb forms across five Mayan languages.

Investigating real-time sentence processing in the second language. Stem-, Spraak- en Taalpathologie, 15 , Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 36 2 , Interfaces between linguistic typology and child language research. Linguistic Typology, 11 1 , Cross-linguistic influence in first and second lanuages: A sketch of the grammar of space in Tzeltal. Explorations in cognitive diversity pp. Key topics in linguistic anthropology pp. Language, culture and cognition: The view from space. The acquisition of early constructions in Hindi.

Interface between information structure and intonation in Dutch wh-questions. Variations in the marking of focus in child language. In Variation, detail and representation: The acquisition of verb compounding in Mandarin. Strategies for longitudinal neurophysiology [commentary on Osterhout et al. Language Learning, 56 suppl. Cross-linguistic categorisation of the body: Language Sciences, 28 , Gestures and second language acquisition [Special Issue].

International Review of Applied Linguistics, 44 2. Gestures, reference tracking, and communication strategies in early L2. Language Learning, 56 1 , International Review of Applied Linguistics, 44 2 , What speakers do and what addressees look at: Visual attention to gestures in human interaction live and on video. The cognitive neuroscience of second language acquisition. The cognitive neuroscience of second language acquisition [Special Issue]. Report on the Nijmegen Lectures Gesture, 6 1 , The influence of language dominance on bilingual VOT: A meta-analysis of hemodynamic studies on first and second language processing: Which suggested differences can we trust and what do they mean?

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It is time to work toward explicit processing models for native and second language speakers. Journal of Applied Psycholinguistics, 27 1 , Inversion as an artifact: The acquisition of topicalization in child L1- and adult L2-Dutch. Finiteness in children and adults learning Dutch. The effect of particular languages pp. Language Archive Newsletter, no. Comparison of resource discovery methods. How to solve a complex verbal task: Text structure, referential movement and the quaestio.

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Journal of the Learning Sciences, 14 2 , Universal and language-specific perception of paralinguistic intonational meaning. The role of pitch accent type in interpreting information status. Effects of pitch accent type on interpreting information status in synthetic speech. Learning the meaning of verbs and verb compounds in Mandarin. The cornerstones of twenty-first century psycholinguistics. Differential case-marking in Hindi. The case for case pp. Additive scope particles in advanced learner and native speaker discourse. AILE, 23 , Finite linking in normally developing Dutch children and children with specific language impairment.

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Splitting the notion of 'agent': Case-marking in early child Hindi. Journal of Child Language, 32 4 , Argument realization in Hindi caregiver-child discourse. Journal of Pragmatics, 37 4 , Australian Journal of Linguistics, 25 1 , Brain and Language, 95 1 , A developmental-functionalist view of the development of transitive and intratransitive constructions in a Hindi-speaking child: International Journal of Idiographic Science, 2.

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Position and motion in Tzeltal frog stories: The acquisition of narrative style. Typological and contextual perspectives pp. Frames of spatial reference and their acquisition in Tenejapan Tzeltal. Diskurse, Medien, Performanzen pp. Multimodal multiperson interaction with infants aged 9 to 15 months. Initial references to persons and places. Language specificity in perception of paralinguistic intonational meaning. Language and Speech, 47 4 , Fokuspartikeln und Informationsgliederung im Deutschen.

Where language, culture and cognition meet ed. Gesture, 4 2 , Hirnaktivierungen bei syntaktischer Sprachverarbeitung: Prelexical and lexical processing in listening. The spatial and temporal signatures of word production components. Cognition, 92 , Neural responses to the production and comprehension of syntax in identical utterances. Brain and Language, 89 2 , Reading in a regular orthography: An fMRI study investigating the role of visual familiarity.

Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16 5 , Morphology in Second Language Acquisition. Ein internationales Handbuch zur Flexion und Wortbildung pp. Systematiek en dynamiek bij de verwerving van Finietheid. Toegepaste Taalwetenschap in Artikelen, 71 , Philologie auf neuen Wegen [Special Issue]. Auf der Suche nach den Prinzipien, oder: Im Lauf der Jahre.

Linguistische Berichte, , Was die Geisteswissenschaften leider noch von den Naturwissenschaften unterscheidet. Gegenworte, 13 , Can language restructure cognition? The case for space. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8 3 , The human body in cognition, brain, and typology. Toward a Synthesis pp. The grant rate remained at relatively low levels, but the EPO was unable to stem the use of divisional filings. The developments at the EPO point to a high private value of delay options. Delay may be achieved either by making use of explicit statutory rules or by other means, such as filing divisional applications.

DOI Postgrant validity challenges at patent offices rely on the private initiative of third parties to correct mistakes made by patent offices. We hypothesize that incentives to bring postgrant validity challenges are reduced when many firms benefit from revocation of a patent and when firms are caught up in patent thickets. Using data on opposition to patents at the European Patent Office we show that opposition decreases in fields in which many others profit from patent revocations.

Moreover, in fields with a large number of mutually blocking patents, the incidence of opposition is sharply reduced, particularly among large firms and firms that are caught up directly in patent thickets. These findings indicate that postgrant patent review may not constitute an effective correction device for erroneous patent grants in technologies affected by either patent thickets or highly dispersed patent ownership. DOI In bifurcated patent litigation systems, claims of infringement and validity of a patent are decided independently of each other in separate court proceedings at different courts.

In non-bifurcated systems, infringement and validity are decided jointly in the same proceedings at a single court. We build a model that shows the key trade-off between bifurcated and non-bifurcated systems and how it affects the incentives of plaintiffs and defendants in patent infringement cases. Using detailed data on patent litigation cases in Germany bifurcated and the U. We also show that having to challenge a patent's validity in separate court proceedings under bifurcation implies that alleged infringers are less likely to do so.

We find this to apply in particular to more resource-constrained alleged infringers. Finally, we find parties to be more likely to settle in a bifurcated system. DOI This paper assesses the impact in the US of adopting a patent post-grant review procedure opposition. By employing novel methods for matching US patents to their non-US counterparts, we find that the opposition rate is about three times higher among the European Patent Office EPO equivalents of a sample of US litigated patents as against control-group unlitigated patents.

Contingent upon reaching final judgment in EPO opposition, about 70 percent of these equivalent patents are either completely revoked or narrowed. Using these findings to inform a series of welfare estimates, we calculate a range of net social benefits that would accrue to the US from adopting a patent post-grant review. We discover that large social benefits would result primarily from the elimination of unwarranted market power, and less so from litigation cost savings per se. Our results provide evidence that the US could benefit substantially from adopting an administrative patent post-grant review, provided the mechanism is not too costly.

DOI In the presence of asymmetric information, economic agents need to communicate their quality to investors and other parties. This paper investigates how information generated during the patenting process affects the ability of new ventures to attract VC financing. While much of the literature on information asymmetries focuses on patent applications, we argue that the entire examination process should be considered, including information that emerges in the course of patent examination and review. We test several hypotheses using a sample of British and German companies that seek venture capital.

We find that the filing of patent applications is positively related to VC financing. Moreover, the examination process at the patent office generates valuable technological and commercial information via search reports, citations and opposition procedures which affect the likelihood of VC financing. Our results suggest that the patenting process supports investors in updating their expectations regarding the quality of new ventures.

DOI Innovation processes within corporations increasingly tap into international technology sources, yet little is known about the relative contribution of different types of innovation channels. We investigate the effectiveness of different types of international technology sourcing activities using survey information on German companies complemented with information from the European Patent Office. The positive influence on total factor productivity is larger if the research of the inventors results in coapplications of patents with US companies.

Allen, we contribute to the emerging microlevel theory of knowledge recombination by examining how individual-level characteristics of inventors affect the breadth of their technological recombinations. Our data set combines information from 30, European patents with matched survey data obtained from 1, inventors.

The analysis supports the view that inventors with a scientific education are more likely to generate patents that span technological boundaries in our case, 30 broad, top-level technological domains than inventors with an engineering degree. A doctoral degree is associated with increased recombination breadth for all groups of inventors. The breadth of an inventor's technological recombinations diminishes with increasing temporal distance to his education, but the differences between scientists and engineers persist over time. Our findings provide several new insights for research on inventors, the literature on organizational learning and innovation, and strategy research.

DOI This review surveys recent research on the economics of patents. The topics covered include theoretical and empirical evidence on patents as incentives for innovation, the effectiveness of patents for invention disclosure, patent valuation, and the design of patent systems. We also look at some current policy areas, including software and business method patents, university patenting, and the growth in patent litigation. DOI This paper provides a direct measure of the density of patent thickets based on patent citations.

We discuss the algorithm that generates the measure and present descriptive results validating it. Moreover, we identify technology areas particularly affected by patent thickets. DOI Entrepreneurship education ranks high on policy agendas in Europe and the US, but little research is available to assess its impact. To help close this gap we investigate whether entrepreneurship education affects intentions to be entrepreneurial uniformly or whether it leads to greater sorting of students. The latter can reduce the average intention to be entrepreneurial and yet be socially beneficial. This paper provides a model of learning in which entrepreneurship education generates signals to students.

Drawing on the signals, students evaluate their aptitude for entrepreneurial tasks. The model is tested using data from a compulsory entrepreneurship course. The empirical analysis supports the hypothesis that students receive informative signals and learn about their entrepreneurial aptitude. We outline implications for educators and public policy. DOI Harhoff, Dietmar DOI We analyze the duration and outcomes of patent examination at the European Patent Office utilizing an unusually rich data set covering a random sample of , applications filed between and In our empirical analysis, we distinguish between three groups of determinants: The results from an accelerated failure time model indicate that more controversial claims lead to slower grants but faster withdrawals, whereas well-documented applications are approved faster and withdrawn more slowly.

We find strong evidence that applicants accelerate grant proceedings for their most valuable patents, but that they also prolong the battle for such patents if a withdrawal or refusal is imminent. This paper develops implications of these results for managerial decision making in research and development and innovation management. DOI The start-up team plays a key role in venture capitalists' evaluations of venture proposals. Our findings go beyond existing research, first by providing a detailed exploration of VCs' team evaluation criteria, and second by investigating the moderator variable of VC experience.

Data were obtained in a conjoint experiment with 51 professionals in VC firms and analyzed using discrete choice econometric models. DOI This paper employs data from an extensive European survey to produce one of the first systematic assessments of the private economic value of patents. The estimated mean of our patent value distribution is higher than 3 million euros, the median is about one-tenth of it, and the mode is around a few thousand euros.

This is in line with previous findings about the skewed distribution of patent values. Our measure is significantly correlated with the number of patent citations, references, claims, and countries in which the patent is applied. Citations explain value as much as the other three indicators combined, and the right tail of citations is correlated with the right tail of our value measure. Yet, the four indicators only explain 2. Thus, while the use of these indicators as proxies for value, particularly citations, may be justified, predictions based on these indicators carry significant noise.

After using country, technology, and patent class fixed effects, we only explain DOI Based on a survey of the inventors of European patented inventions, this paper provides new information about the characteristics of European inventors, the sources of their knowledge, the importance of formal and informal collaborations, the motivations to invent, and the actual use and economic value of the patents. DOI Germany is one of few countries in which the monetary compensation for inventors is not only determined by negotiations between employer and employee-inventor, but also by relatively precise legal provisions.

We rely on responses from a recent survey of German inventors to test hypotheses regarding this institution. We conclude from our data that the law creates substantial monetary rewards for productive inventors. The qualitative responses from our survey confirm this view, but also point to a number of dysfunctional effects.

DOI This paper extends recent research studying biases in venture capitalist's decision making. We contribute to this literature by analyzing biases arising from similarities between a venture capitalist and members of a venture team. We summarize the psychological foundations of such similarity effects and derive a set of hypotheses regarding the impact of similarity on the assessment of team quality. Using data from a conjoint experiment with 51 respondents, we find that venture capitalists tend to favor teams that are similar to themselves in type of training and professional experience.

Our results have important implications for academics and practitioners alike. We confirm that these differences do not simply reflect a greater role for current cash flow in forecasting future sales. Opposition at the EPO is the most important mechanism by which the validity of a European patent can be challenged. In our sample, 8. We show empirically that the likelihood of opposition increases with patent value, and that opposition is particularly frequent in areas with strong patenting activity and with high technical or market uncertainty. We comment on the implications of these results for the design of the patent and litigation system.

Several policy review boards have advocated the introduction of post-grant patent review mechanisms in the U. We take a detailed look at the experience with the opposition mechanism at the European Patent Office. Our results indicate that a properly designed U. We also discuss the design choices faced by policymakers in the United States and provide recommendations. DOI We combine estimates of the value of patent rights from a survey of patent-holders with a set of indicator variables in order to model the value of patents.

Our results suggest that the number of references to the patent literature as well as the citations a patent receives are positively related to its value. References to the non-patent literature are informative about the value of pharmaceutical and chemical patents, but not in other technical fields. Patents which are upheld in opposition and annulment procedures and patents representing large international patent families are particularly valuable.

DOI Empirical studies of innovation have found that end users frequently develop important product and process innovations. Defying conventional wisdom on the negative effects of uncompensated spillovers, innovative users also often openly reveal their innovations to competing users and to manufacturers. Rival users are thus in a position to reproduce the innovation in-house and benefit from using it, and manufacturers are in a position to refine the innovation and sell it to all users, including competitors of the user revealing its innovation.

In this paper, we explore the incentives that users might have to freely reveal their proprietary innovations. We find that, under realistic parameter constellations, free revealing pays. We conclude by discussing some implications of our findings. DOI In national innovation systems, universities are not only essential elements of the research infrastructure, but also main players in the field of education and further education.

Their specific role in the interplay between knowledge production and market implementation of knowledge via start—ups derives from this fact. This article takes as its theme the university environment which supports and stimulates the start—up processes. It also shows the progress achieved in the German university landscape in recent years on the path towards a culture of entrepreneurship in teaching and research.

This is manifested, for example, in the number of start—up chairs, the development of networks to exploit the start—up potential of universities together with regional partners, and in the numbers of spin—offs established. DOI This paper draws implications for technology policy from evidence on the size distribution of returns from eight sets of data on inventions and innovations attributable to private sector firms and universities. It follows that programs seeking to advance technology should not be judged negatively if they lead to numerous economic failures; rather, emphasis should be placed on the relatively few big successes.

To achieve noteworthy success with appreciable confidence, a sizeable array of projects must often be supported. The outcome distributions are sufficiently skewed that, even with large numbers of projects, it is not possible to diversify away substantial residual variability through portfolio strategies.

Using panel estimation techniques, the results suggest that spillovers affect industries in a heterogeneous manner. Experiments with alternative spillover definitions suggest that the effect is not due to racing phenomena. DOI Previous research has shown that the distribution of profit outcomes from technological innovations is highly skew.

This paper builds upon those detailed findings to ask: After reviewing the evidence, this paper reports on several stochastic model simulations, including a pure Gibrat random walk with monthly changes approximating those observed for high-technology startup company stocks and a more richly specified model blending internal and external market uncertainties. The most highly specified simulations suggest that the set of profit potentials tapped by innovators is itself skew-distributed and that the number of entrants into innovation races is more likely to be independent of market size than stochastically dependent upon it.

Through a survey, private economic value estimates were obtained on inventions made in the United States and Germany and on which German patent renewal fees were paid to full-term expiration in A search of subsequent U. Patents renewed to full-term were significantly more highly cited than patents allowed to expire before their full term. The higher an invention's economic value estimate was, the more the patent was subsequently cited. DOI This paper studies the effect of regional spillovers on the rate of firm formation in two major West German industries for the time period from to The results point to the existence of strong localization and urbanization effects.

The emergence of high technology firms seems to be contingent on a heterogeneous historical industry structure, the existence of service providers, and in particular on a high employment share of scientists in universities and extra-university research laboratories. Much of this effect vanishes once error-correcting behavior is taken into account, but a significant positive relationship between cash flow and investment remains for relatively small firms. The evidence from Euler equationi estimates is not conclusive.

The investment Euler equation for large firms appears to perform relatively well and yields results close to those expected under the null hypothesis of no financing constraints. Additional evidence from survey data suggests that the cash flow sensitivity of investment in small firms is likely to reflect financing constraints.

Using a sample of approximately West German firms from all major sectors of the economy, we test predictions on the relationship between legal form, firm survival and employment growth. In our tests, we distinguish between voluntary liquidation without losses to creditors and bankruptcy, that is forced liquidation. We demonstrate that in all sectors firms under limited liability have higher growth and higher insolvency rates than comparable firms under full liability.

Firms whose owners are approaching retirement age are characterised by relatively high hazards of voluntary liquidation, while the propensity to declare insolvency is not affected by the owner's age. DOI We examine empirically the role of lending relationships in determining the costs and collateral requirements for external funds. The data originate from a recently concluded survey of small and medium-sized German firms.

In our descriptive analysis, we explore the borrowing patterns and the concentration of borrowing from financial institutions. Differencing estimates improve considerably when growth rates are computed over longer time periods, suggesting that the divergence between time-series and cross-sectional estimates is driven by random measurement errors.

The paper also considers differences between high technology and other firms. DOI Changing product quality poses a challenge for the computation of price indexes, in particular in technologically advanced industries. We assess the differences between traditional and quality-corrected indexes by computing hedonic and matched-model price indexes for personal computer database software.

Our database covers the price development in Germany from to Quality-adjusted software prices declined by 7. Surprisingly, a matched-model index based on linking the prices of directly comparable program versions decreases even faster than the hedonic index 9. This unusual result is apparently caused by the simultaneous selling of old and new versions of a given software product.

The estimation results also confirm the importance of network effects. The ability to read and write data in the dominant spreadsheet format file compatibility is also associated with higher prices, but the price differential is much smaller than in the case of code compatibility. This paper explores the structure of incentives undergirding the German system of apprenticeship training. We first describe characteristics of the German labor market which may lead firms to accept part of the cost of general training, even in the face of worker turnover.

We then compare labor market outcomes for apprentices in Germany and high school graduates in the United States. Apprentices in Germany occupy a similar position within the German wage structure as held by high school graduates in the United States labor market. Finally, we provide evidence that -- in both countries -- the problem of forming labor market bonds is particularly acute for minority youth. Both effects cause an expansion of downstream output and enhance the demand for the supplier's intermediate good.

Weak appropriability conditions in the downstream industry enhance innovation incentives in the supply sector. DOI Recent developments in patenting activity are the subject of a growing literature. Existing research contributes to a better understanding of the incentives that drive economic agents to rely on the patent system e.

Lately, a number of researchers have started to explore the design of the patent system itself, i. At the same time, patent litigation and its costs are rising. This paper explores the potential of a postgrant review process modeled on the European opposition system to improve patent quality, reveal overlooked prior art, and reduce subsequent litigation. We argue that the welfare gains to such a system may be substantial.

Die Bevorzugung interner Finanzierungsquellen wird u. Kleine und junge Unternehmen sehen sich allerdings generell benachteiligt. For small and medium-sized enterprises SMEs in Germany, debt finance supplied by banks assumes a particularly prominent role. Yet, loans are the preferred source of finance for investment only, while innovation projects are typically financed out of cash flow. This preference for internal finance is presumably caused by information asymmetries which make external finance prohibitively expensive for small and young firms. This article summarizes prior studies on the incidence of financing constraints and uses recently collected firm-level data to explore particular issues.

The data analysis demonstrates that small and relatively young enterprises are particularly likely to indicate that lack of new equity or debt finance is an impediment to investment and innovation activities. Trust between bank and firm, a relatively long duration of the lending relationship, and limiting the borrowing relationships to just a few creditors tend to improve financing conditions. Data from a thought experiment suggest that managers and owners will frequently not use external finance even if available , since the involvement of banks would limit some form of dependence.

Editorials Kur, Annette; Harhoff, Dietmar In their contribution to the 4th ECB Forum, David Autor and Anna Salomons provide a very useful analysis of the employment-productivity growth nexus and a decomposition of employment effects in direct and indirect components. This comment revisits the context of the debate as well as their central results and relates them to other recent analyses in labor economics. Besonderes Augenmerk erfahren zwei Themenbereiche: Empirical studies to verify and refine theoretical models are increasingly important in economics.

This is also reflected in a rising number of empirical contributions to journals where authors have collected their own research data or used external datasets. However, so far there have been few effective means to replicate the published results within the framework of the corresponding article, to verify it, to make it available for repurposing or to use it to support scholarly debate. Our article reflects some of the principal reasons why economic research often is not replicable and suggests recommendations on how to meet these challenges.

The patent system in Europe is still incomplete. Appropriating returns from patented technology is impaired by the fact that patent-holders may have to enforce their patent rights in multiple courts. Moreover, third parties interested in showing that particular patent rights have been granted erroneously are disadvantaged by having to initiate revocation proceedings in multiple jurisdictions. Given that the successful pursuit of these two objectives can generate welfare gains for the European economy, a unified European patent litigation system has immediate appeal.

The current study seeks to provide approximate cost and benefit calculations in order to inform policy-makers in Europe about the choices they face in this important field of public policy. The study groups cost and benefit effects into the following categories: Towards performing an assessment of the first two effects, the report collects data from a variety of sources in order to support the estimates and to test the plausibility of a number of necessary assumptions. Given that no official data on the incidence, outcomes and cost of patent litigation exist, an effort is made to triangulate data and estimates in order to demonstrate that the approximations are justified.

The following results are particularly important. Avoiding duplication of infringement and revocation cases is likely to generate large benefits for the European economy. The results obtained here suggest that currently, between and infringement cases are being duplicated annually in the EU Member States.

By , this number is likely to increase to between and duplicated cases. Total private savings from having access to a unified Patent Court in would span the interval between EUR and million. An assessment of the operating costs of the proposed Patent Court is obviously subject to a large number of caveats. Based on data from earlier efforts in particular the Working Party on Litigation set up under the auspices of the European Patent Organisation , an upper-bound estimate for the operating costs of a court with a capacity of cases indicates that the Court would cause operating costs of EUR Hence, the cost-benefit assessment focusing on avoided duplication leads to a highly positive evaluation of the proposal.

Even if the low estimate of savings EUR million is taken, the new system would create substantial benefits and reach a benefit-cost ratio of 5. However, this view may be unduly conservative, and the benefit-cost ratio could be as high as Additional benefits could flow in case of additional litigation activity, be it in terms of infringement or revocation actions. The availability of a low-cost litigation path offered by a unified Patent Court is likely to lead to additional activity from parties in countries which currently do not use the European patent system extensively.

Moreover, the cost level of litigation in the unified Patent Court system is likely to be below the cost levels currently observed in some Member States and parties in these Member States are also likely to engage in more litigation activity in the medium-run. These effects will also contribute to generate private and public benefits. The above estimates and considerations are based on the assumption that the unified Patent Court will offer litigation at roughly the same cost level as the three largest low-cost national systems. In a robustness check, the report explores to what extent the gains from saved duplication would be dissipated if the cost level were higher.

The computations show that even with a substantial average cost increase, benefit-cost ratios remain above one, and for most scenarios considerably above one. It is more difficult to predict cost-induced changes in the demand for litigation.

The relevance of such changes will depend on the level and type of costs imposed on users of the new system. These will be mostly determined by the private costs for legal support and advice, but also by the fees levied by the Court itself. A particularly promising measure is to admit representation of parties by specialized European Patent Attorneys. The report also discusses — in a qualitative manner — effects which emerge from changes in patenting and litigation incentives.

It is argued that effects will be beneficial if the unified patent litigation system puts emphasis on fast and low-cost proceedings, high quality judgement, and a fair balance between the legitimate interests of patent holders and alleged infringers. It is emphasized that particularly strong positive welfare contributions can be expected if an effective and rapid, low-cost revocation procedure is available.

To summarize, this report recommends strongly that the Presidency should proceed in its efforts to establish a unified and integrated patent litigation system for European patents and future Community patents. For conservative estimates of the relevant parameters, the economic benefits from such a system are likely to exceed the costs of the establishment and operation of the new court by a large multiple of between 5.

Moreover, with prudent design choices it should be possible to implement a litigation system that will be balanced and supportive of overall efforts to improve the quality of patents in Europe. Intellectual property rights IPRs have recently been subject to numerous, sometimes highly controversial debates in Europe. An arcane technical matter prior to the s, the design of IPR systems now attracts attention, not only among the users of the respective IPR systems, but also more broadly among the citizens of Europe.

It is generally accepted that IPRs can play an important role for fostering innovation, but the design choices for IPR systems remain contested. Some of the renewed interest is created by the perception that over the last decades, the IPR systems have strengthened the position of rights owners over those of the users of protected subject matter.

This chapter argues that this perception is at least partly correct. In the field of copyright, technical and legal developments have contributed to a shift of control towards commerical content providers. In the area of patent rights, changes in the behavior of applicants have led to strong increases in the demand for patent protection, coupled with some signs of quality deterioration in the patent system. While Europe may have fared relatively well when compared to the US, problems are emerging in the EU as well. From an economic perspective, there is a need for harmonizing European adminstrative and legal practices in the area of IPRs while increasing the quality standards used in these system.

Moreover, a new balance between the owners of rights and users of the protected subject matter needs to be found in many fields. This tax subsidy instrument has been introduced in a number of countries since We find that the impact on transfers is small but present, especially when the tax instrument contains a development condition and for high value patents those most likely to have generated income , but that invention itself is not affected.

This calls into question whether the patent box is an effective instrument for encouraging innovation in a country, rather than simply facilitating the shifting of corporate income to low tax jurisdictions. Mapping technologies into industries is frequently required in empirical innovation studies, but many concordances only provide coarse mappings.

We develop novel concordance tables between industries and technologies making use of linked inventor-employee patent data for Germany. The data comprise , patents filed between and at the European Patent Office. Data on inventors are matched and disambiguated with social security records available at the Institute for Employment Research. We evaluate our approach by comparing the concordance tables with existing work, and we discuss the validity of patent statistics by industries as indicators for innovation. Revise-and-Resubmit, Research Policy Replication studies are considered a hallmark of good scientific practice.

Yet they are treated among researchers as an ideal to be professed but not practiced. To provide incentives and favorable boundary conditions for replication practice, the main stakeholders need to be aware of what drives replication. Here we investigate how often replication studies are published in empirical economics and what types of journal articles are replicated.

We find that from to less than 0. We do not find empirical support that mandatory data disclosure policies or the availability of data or code have a significant effect on the incidence of replication. The mere provision of data repositories may be ineffective, unless accompanied by appropriate incentives.

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However, we find that higher-impact articles and articles by authors from leading institutions are more likely to be subject of published replication studies whereas the replication probability is lower for articles published in higher-ranked journals. Die Verwendbarkeit existierender Konkordanztabellen ist jedoch durch deren Methodik bzw.