Then she could count the nuclei to figure out how many cells there were; it would be as simple as counting checkers on a checkerboard. A fter 18 months, she settled on a procedure that involved hardening the brain tissue with formaldehyde and then mashing it gently with detergent—repeatedly pushing a plunger into the glass tube, turning it as she went, until she had a uniform slurry. She diluted the liquid, squeezed a drop of it onto a glass slide, and peered at it through a microscope. A constellation of blue dots lay scattered across her field of view: By staining the nuclei with a second dye, which binds to specialized nerve proteins, she could count how many of them came from nerve cells—the cells that actually process information in brains—rather than other types of cells found in brain tissue.
Neuroscientist Suzana Herculano-Houzel holds up a tube that contains a liquid suspension of all the cell nuclei that once made up a mouse brain. An entire rat brain contains about million nerve cells. Her results revealed that as brains get larger and heavier from one species of rodent to another, the number of neurons grows more slowly than the mass of the brain itself: T hen in , Herculano-Houzel got her hands on the brains of six primate species during a visit with Jon Kaas, a brain scientist at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee.
And this is where things got even more interesting. W hat Herculano-Houzel found in these primates was totally different from rodents. H erculano-Houzel saw a clear mathematical trend among these six species that are alive today: As the primate brain expands from one species to another, the number of neurons rises quickly enough to keep pace with the growing brain size. Instead, they stay compact. An owl monkey, with a brain twice as large as a marmoset, actually has twice as many neurons—whereas doubling the size of a rodent brain often yields only 20 to 30 percent more neurons.
And a macaque monkey, with a brain 11 times larger than a marmoset, has 10 times as many nerve cells. Primate brains were very different from those of rodents. At roughly 1, grams, the human brain weighs times as much as a marmoset brain and holds times as many nerve cells—about 86 billion in total. Her subsequent studies, published between and , suggest that other major mammal groups, such as insectivores and cloven-hoofed artiodactyls like pigs, antelopes, and giraffes , follow the rodent-like scaling pattern, with neuron numbers increasing much more slowly than brain mass.
But by studying a diversity of brains, from small to big, Herculano-Houzel learned about the design principles of brains. She came to understand that primate and rodent brains faced very different constraints in the way that they could evolve. P eople in the anthropological community have responded positively to her work—though with a touch of caution.
Robert Barton, an anthropologist who studies brain evolution and behavior at Durham University in the U. He points out that Herculano-Houzel has so far studied the brains of about a dozen, out of several hundred known, primate species. As brain size expanded over the course of primate evolution, the number of neurons in the primate brain increased quickly, leading to big improvements in cognition. In rodents, however, the expansion of brain size led to only small increases in the number of neurons, with little or no improvement in cognitive ability.
Scientists who calculated EQs had assumed that they were making apples-to-apples comparisons—that the relationship between brain size and number of neurons was uniform across all mammals. His study, published with a large consortium of co-authors in , compared the brains and cognitive abilities of 36 animal species—including 23 primates and a sprinkling of other mammals, and seven birds.
Impulse control is an important component of intelligence, which, unlike algebra skills, can be measured across diverse species. M acLean found that EQ did a poor job of predicting this quality. Chimpanzees and gorillas have mediocre EQs of 1. They were at the top. D espite a relatively small sampling of animals and a lot of scatter in the data, MacLean found that the best predictor for self-control was absolute brain volume, uncorrected for body size: Chimps and gorillas may have EQs no better than squirrel monkeys, but their brains, in absolute terms, are 15 to 20 times bigger.
Their EQs may be thrown off because they have unusually big bodies, not small brains. This was also the case for birds. Birds may have tiny brains, but Herculano-Houzel found that those brains are densely packed. The Eurasian jay has a brain smaller than a walnut, but it has nearly million neurons in its pallium the brain structure in birds that is roughly equivalent to the mammalian cortex.
Great Ape Protection
Her numbers provided a compelling explanation for why these birds scored better on impulse control than did some primates with brains five times larger. The reason is that ballooning neuron size presents a staggering problem. It eventually becomes unsustainable. Just consider a hypothetical rodent with the same number of neurons as a human—about 86 billion. That beast would need to drag around a brain weighing 35 kilograms.
White matter in the brain contains fat-coated axons that make long-distance connections between neurons in gray matter. Frontiers in Psychiatry T his problem of ballooning neuron size was probably one of the major factors that limited brain expansion in most species. The burning question is how primates managed to avoid this problem. T he usual curse of an ever-expanding neuron size may stem from the basic fact that brains function as networks in which individual neurons send signals to one another. With the police defeated, Caesar led the apes to the redwood forest.
However, Will, who had earlier learned of Caesar's rebellion against humans and witnessed the battle between the police, quickly followed the apes to the forest. Will searched for Caesar, only to be attacked by Koba, but Caesar arrived and ordered Koba to stand down, as the angered bonobo ran off in the woods. Will then warned Caesar that the humans would hunt them down and pleaded with him to come home, promising to protect him if he did. In response, Caesar looked upon his followers and hugged Will as he whispered in his ear, "Caesar is home".
A shocked Will, realizing that it was indeed their final moments together, respected Caesar's wishes. Caesar then approached his favorite tree before turning to face the apes who stood on upright like him to show they had now accepted him as their leader as he climbed to the top with Maurice and Rocket joining him on the adjacent trees. They calmly gazed upon San Francisco, unaware of the deadly virus that would soon destroy mankind. Ten years after the worldwide pandemic of the deadly Simian Flu, human civilization is completely destroyed all over the world.
His people have learned sign language in order to communicate with one another, medical and combat training to care for and defend themselves as well as hunting as a way of life. Later in life, Caesar and his wife, Cornelia, have a son named Blue Eyes due to his blue irises who is inducted into the Ape Army and the Ape Council by his father in order for him to learn how to operate an empire that will one day be his own.
On a hunt for elk , Caesar successfully ensnares a stag. Before proceeding to kill the stag, Caesar notices, to his concern, large claw marks on a nearby tree and orders his son to wait. Blue Eyes, however, disobeys his father's order and attempts to kill the stag, but is attacked by a bear. Caesar, attempting to protect his wounded son and fight the bear, stands no chance and immediately calls for help.
His call is eventually heard by Koba who kills the bear by spearing it in the back of the head, trapping Caesar underneath its corpse. However, Caesar emerges from underneath the corpse. He thanks Koba for the assistance and reprimands Blue Eyes for his recklessness before they return to the Ape Village. Returning to the village, Caesar is summoned to his home where he witnesses the birth of his youngest son, Cornelius. He summons over Blue Eyes to meet his new younger brother and together, the Royal Ape Family celebrates the new addition to their family and colony.
Later that afternoon, Maurice congratulates Caesar on the birth, but the subject changes to humans who haven't been seen for the last ten winters. Maurice believes that the humans are all gone, but Caesar still questions the humans' eradication. Awakened by the sound of a gunshot, Caesar and his followers quickly makes their way through the forest where they discover a group of humans led by a man named Malcolm, much to his shock.
Malcolm tries to reassure the apes that the humans mean no harm to them, but since one of the humans shot Ash , the son of Rocket, wounding him. Caesar angrily orders the humans to leave. The humans quickly depart, but Caesar orders Koba to follow them, leading the apes to discover a community of human survivors in the city who are genetically immune to the virus and living in a tower within the city. Back at the village, Caesar and the Council discuss what should be done about the humans.
Koba insists on fighting the humans, but Caesar acknowledges that war could cost them their home. He assures the Council that he will have a decision by morning before retiring to his home. However, Koba approaches Caesar and tells him of his past, that he will obey his commands without hesitation, but the apes must show strength. Caesar agrees with this statement. The next day, the ape army heavy in number and weapons enter the city and arrive at the human colony. Marching to the tower, Caesar surprises the human colony by announcing in english to the terrified humans that while apes do not want war, they will fight to defend their home, warning the humans to never come back to the forest before the apes depart.
However, Malcolm and his party return to the forest despite Caesar's warning. Malcolm travels into the apes' territory and is captured by the Gorilla Guard , the protectors of the forest, and is taken to Caesar. Malcolm tells Caesar that if he just allows him to show him, he will understand why the humans are trespassing into his territory.
Caesar accepts Malcolm's proposal. Malcolm then takes Caesar and several other apes to a hydroelectric dam where he explains that the humans need to repair the dam's generator, which could provide long-term power to the city and therefore they will be able to reach the outside world and hopefully find other survivors. Sympathetic to the humans, Caesar allows them to stay and repair the dam's generator, but they must work unarmed. Returning to the village, Caesar is at ease with the humans' presence in the forest unlike Koba who is angry that Caesar is choosing to help the humans rather than attack them.
However, Caesar informs Koba that the apes and the humans have only one chance for peace, but Koba's hatred for humans only grows stronger, driving a wedge between the honorary brothers. As the humans proceed to repair the dam's generator, they bond with the apes. Mutual distrust of both sides gradually subsides.
During their progression, the humans are suddenly trapped underground due to an explosion, but Caesar and his fellow apes rescue them after they had been informed of the humans' situation by Ellie , a nurse and Malcolm's wife, and Alexander , Malcolm's son. While the humans are being treated for their injuries, Malcolm thanks Caesar for the assistance, but before anything else can be said, Cornelius scurries out of Blue Eyes' arms to investigate the humans. However, the genocide between the apes and the humans returns when Carver, who holds a deep hatred for the apes, threatens Blue Eyes with a concealed shotgun, enraging his father who almost kills Carver.
Caesar, in his betrayed fury, threatens the humans with the shotgun, but instead, tosses it into the lake. Departing with both of his sons, Caesar furiously orders the humans to leave at once. Back at the village, Caesar discovers, to his grief, that his wife is seriously ill. Weeping over his sick wife, Caesar receives a visit from Malcolm and Ellie who had followed him back to the village, begging for him to reconsider as they did not know about the shotgun. Caesar, however, hasn't forgotten the recent incident and is not at all pleased by their presence in his home, ignoring their pleas.
Ellie then notices Cornelia and offers to treat her with antibiotics, but Caesar doesn't trust them anymore. Despite his distrust and his son's protests, Caesar allows Ellie to treat Cornelia, allowing the humans only one day to finish their work with the apes' help. Meanwhile, Koba returns to the village after infiltrating the city along with his followers, Stone and Grey , and discovering an armory in secret.
After learning from Blue Eyes that Caesar is still assisting the humans at the dam despite that they have threatened both of his sons. Koba confronts Caesar, accusing him of loving humans more than apes and more than his own sons. In response, an enraged Caesar severely beats Koba, but refrains from killing him, adhering to his philosophy that "ape not kill ape". Koba asks for forgiveness and Caesar hesitantly forgives him. However, the brutal fight has permanently broken their relationship beyond repair.
Caesar (CE) | Planet of the Apes Wiki | FANDOM powered by Wikia
While Caesar continues to assist the humans, Koba begins to secretly plan to overthrow him. The dam is eventually repaired with the combined efforts of the apes and the humans, restoring power to the city. Caesar invites the humans back to the village to celebrate.
During the celebration, however, Grey, under Koba's orders, sets fire to the apes' home, then, unseen to anyone else but Caesar, Koba shoots Caesar in the shoulder with an assault rifle that he stole from the humans' armory, causing Caesar to fall from the settlement's main tree, much to the horror and grief of his people, especially Cornelia and Blue Eyes. In the panic of the loss of the alpha and the threat of the fire, Koba takes charge and, implicating Carver whom he secretly murdered in the shooting, urges his people to fight against the humans, promising to avenge the death of their beloved king.
Malcolm's group, who had successfully hidden from the outraged ape army, find Caesar barely alive who reveals to Malcolm that Koba shot him, not Carver. The group return and discover the city in flames due to the apes' earlier assault on the city. Despite heavy causalities, the apes breached the tower using a hijacked tank and imprisoned the humans while Dreyfus , the leader of the remaining human survivors, fled underground. Malcolm's group transports Caesar to his former home in the city, where they learn of his past with humans.
Malcolm leaves the group and heads into the city to find medical supplies for Caesar. Eventually, Malcolm returns with the medical supplies and Blue Eyes who had encountered Malcolm whilst he was searching for the medical supplies. Blue Eyes is overjoyed to see that his father is alive and Caesar tells him that Koba shot him, to the latter's sadness. Blue Eyes stays by his side while Ellie prepares to operate.
After the surgery, Blue Eyes also learns of his father's past with humans before Caesar suddenly awakens. Blue Eyes apologizes to his father, but Caesar tells his son that it is his fault and that he shouldn't have trusted Koba. Because of Koba's actions, Caesar realizes that apes can be as violent as humans.
Blue Eyes informs his father that Koba imprisoned the apes still loyal to him and that Koba killed Ash, much to his sadness. Blue Eyes tries to reassure his father that once the apes see that he is alive, they'll turn from Koba, but not if Caesar is weak. Since ape always seek the strongest branch. Unable to contain his rage towards Koba for not only his betrayal, but for what he is trying to turn his people into, Caesar is determined to try and stop Koba, but is in no condition to fight just yet.
OUT OF OUR MINDS: HOW DID HUMANS COME DOWN FROM THE TREES AND WHY DID NO ONE FOLLOW?
Therefore, Blue Eyes, speaking in broken English for the first time, asks his father to let him help him. Caesar, proud of his son, agrees. Two days later, Caesar, slowly recovering from the surgery, explores his former home and discovers an old camcorder, which depicts Will Rodman, Caesar's adoptive father, teaching a younger Caesar before Caesar is interrupted by Malcolm.
Suddenly, Caesar spots, outside of his attic window, Blue Eyes, who has successfully freed the imprisoned apes, he had also successfully freed the imprisoned humans as well. Blue Eyes informs his father that Koba is planning to move the females and the infants from the forest into the city, including Cornelia and Cornelius. Fearing for his wife and his youngest son, Caesar urges Malcolm that they must leave immediately. Malcolm guides Caesar and the apes to the tower from below, but are forced to separate after encountering an armed human.
Caesar and the apes climb the tower to the top where Caesar confronts Koba. Caesar and Koba battle for supremacy while the rest of the tribe watches on with concern. As Caesar and Koba's battle escalates, Dreyfus detonates C-4 charges that he planted beneath the tower. The resulting explosion kills him and collapses part of the tower. Seeing his people in pain, Caesar and Blue Eyes help the injured apes, as a furious Koba takes a gun and opens fire on them, injuring Maurice in the process.
Infuriated, Caesar dives at Koba and tackles him, causing both of them to tumble down the debris. Caesar lands safely, but Koba is hanging over the edge of the tower. Pleading for his life, Koba reminds Caesar that apes do not kill apes, as Caesar takes his hand and starts to lift him up but stops when seeing the trauma done onto his people by Koba's hand. Staring at Koba, Caesar firmly disowns Koba as an ape and lets him fall to his death, shedding a single tear at the latter's death. There are four distinct populations of chimpanzees in Africa: Endangered Status The current chimpanzee population is estimated to be between 80, to , The number one threat is the bush meat trade that results in 6, chimpanzees per year being killed and eaten by humans.
Chimpanzees are currently threatened to extinction by habitat destruction for logging and mining, as well as poaching for the exotic pet trade. When poached, mothers are killed, and if a baby survives the fall of the mother from the tree, the baby is taken by poachers. Orangutans are found in the tropical rain forests of only two islands in the world: Sumatra in Indonesia and Borneo in Malaysia and Indonesia.
They are the largest arboreal tree dwelling animal in the world, reaching heights of four to five feet and weights of to pounds or more. Orangutans are reddish-brown in color and some males grow white or yellow beards. Also characteristic are their bare faces with round eyes and small ears; their long, shaggy hair; long arms; and curled fingers and feet. They spend most of their time in trees and subsist mainly on fruit, leaves, flowers, buds, bark and insects.
Distinctive Habits and Characteristics. There are four sub-species of orangutan: Endangered Status The current population of orangutans is less than 60, individuals about 53, in Borneo and roughly 6, in Sumatra. They are gravely threatened to extinction due to habitat destruction logging, farming, gold mining and poaching for the exotic pet trade.
When poached, mothers are killed, and if baby survives the fall of mother from tree, the baby is taken by poachers. One of the biggest threats today to orangutans is palm oil. Virgin forests where orangutans live and find all their food are cut down in order to plant the cash crop for palm oil. This oil is widely used in foods and consumers should be aware of ingredients in cookies, ice cream and other foods and not buy products that use palm oil.
More threatening now is the use of palm oil in bio fuels. Nearly 5, orangutans a year have been killed or died over the past few years as palm oil plantations take up their habitat. About Apes Apes are primates. Chimpanzees are the most social of all the apes and live in communities of between 15 and individuals.