In , Stuyvesant, who did not tolerate full religious freedom in the colony, [10] and was strongly committed to the supremacy of the Dutch Reformed Church , refused to allow Lutherans the right to organize a church. When he also issued an ordinance forbidding them from worshiping in their own homes, the directors of the Dutch West Indies Company, three of whom were Lutherans, told him to rescind the order and allow private gatherings of Lutherans.
Freedom of religion was further tested when Stuyvesant refused to allow Jewish refugees, from Dutch Brazil , to settle permanently in New Amsterdam without passports and join the existing community of Jews with passports from Amsterdam. Stuyvesant attempted to have Jews "in a friendly way to depart" the colony.
As he wrote to the Amsterdam Chamber of the Dutch West India Company in , he hoped that "the deceitful race, — such hateful enemies and blasphemers of the name of Christ, — be not allowed to further infect and trouble this new colony. Stuyvesant's decision was again rescinded after pressure from the directors of the Company.
As a result, Jewish immigrants were allowed to stay in the colony as long as their community was self-supporting, however, Stuyvesant and the company would not allow them to build a synagogue, forcing them to worship instead in a private house. In , the Quakers , who were newly arrived in the colony, drew his attention. He ordered the public torture of Robert Hodgson, a year-old Quaker convert who had become an influential preacher. Stuyvesant then made an ordinance, punishable by fine and imprisonment, against anyone found guilty of harboring Quakers.
Four English ships bearing men, commanded by Richard Nicolls , seized the Dutch colony. On 30 August , George Cartwright sent the governor a letter demanding surrender. He promised "life, estate, and liberty to all who would submit to the king's authority. Stuyvesant obtained civil rights and freedom of religion in the Articles of Capitulation.
The English were Anglicans, holding to the 39 Articles , a Protestant confession, with bishops. In , Stuyvesant went to the Netherlands to report on his term as governor. On his return to the colony, he spent the remainder of his life on his farm of sixty-two acres outside the city, called the Great Bouwerie, beyond which stretched the woods and swamps of the village of Nieuw Haarlem. A pear tree that he reputedly brought from the Netherlands in remained at the corner of Thirteenth Street and Third Avenue until when it was destroyed by a storm, [18] bearing fruit almost to the last.
The house was destroyed by fire in He also built an executive mansion of stone called Whitehall. In , Stuyvesant married Judith Bayard c. Petrus and Judith had two sons together. He died in August and his body was entombed in the east wall of St. Stuyvesant and his family were large landowners in the northeastern portion of New Amsterdam, and the Stuyvesant name is currently associated with three places in Manhattan 's East Side, near present-day Gramercy Park: His farm, called the "Bouwerij" — the seventeenth-century Dutch word for "farm" [23] — was the source for the name of the Manhattan street and surrounding neighborhood named " The Bowery ".
The contemporary neighborhood of Bedford—Stuyvesant, Brooklyn includes Stuyvesant Heights and retains its name. Also named after him are the hamlets of Stuyvesant and Stuyvesant Falls in Columbia County, New York , where descendants of the early Dutch settlers still live and where the Dutch Reformed Church remains an important part of the community, as well as shopping centers, yacht clubs and other buildings and facilities throughout the area where the Dutch colony once was.
A statue of Stuyvesant by J. Massey Rhind situated at Bergen Square in Jersey City was dedicated in to mark the th anniversary of the Dutch settlement there [24] [25] [26]. The last acknowledged direct descendant of Peter Stuyvesant to bear his surname was Augustus van Horne Stuyvesant, Jr.
Rutherfurd Stuyvesant , the 19th-century New York developer, and his descendants are also descended from Peter Stuyvesant; however, Rutherford Stuyvesant's name was changed from Stuyvesant Rutherford in to satisfy the terms of the will of Peter Gerard Stuyvesant. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Painting attributed to Hendrick Couturier c. New York City portal.
Past and Present Project. Oxford University Press , p. Review of Venema, Janny, Beverwijck: A Dutch Village on the American Frontier, Whiteness of a Different Color , p. New Netherland and the Dutch origins of American religious liberty 1st ed. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Peter Stuyvesant
From Its Discovery to the Present Time. Oxford University Press , pp. Famed sculptor of the early 20th century created historically, artistically important Jersey City statue of Peter Stuyvesant". Retrieved 3 November Stuyvesant's name originally was Rutherford, a buit a condition of the will of a relative, who died childless, required that he take the name Stuyvesant in order to inherit. He therefore reversed his names, and, instead of Stuyvesant Rutherford, became Rutherford Stuyvesant. The New York Times. Retrieved 7 February Brown has written and spoken about the influence of the Sudanese connection on several occasions.
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Speaking to the Daily Princetonian , he has remarked: Lawrence's The Seven Pillars of Wisdom , which I would read, from cover to cover, every time that I returned home on holiday from my school in England. The power of both had begun to puzzle and intrigue me. The collapse of an enlightened empire might, indeed, be a catastrophic event, for all I knew; but it was unlikely to be uninteresting.
Brown was educated at Aravon School - now closed but, at that time, a distinguished preparatory school in Bray, where he first studied Latin and French. I fully intended to enter the Science stream of my new school. My housemaster summoned me to his study. In between puffs of his pipe, he announced with utter certainty: When asked to comment on his intellectual formation, Brown has also indicated that he completed his public schooling a year early, returning to Ireland as he had done for school holidays in , the year he turned Most of his degree was 'devoted to English History in its entirety and to the European High Middle Ages, from to ', but in his final academic year, he undertook a Special Subject on The Age of Augustine, and was particularly influenced by the writings of Marrou and Piganiol.
Institutions and powerful bodies of ideas, that I had known only in the medieval and post-Reformation periods — and many of which, in their modern form, still hung, like chill clouds, above the heart of any Irish boy, Catholic or Protestant — were shown to have originated first in a very distant, ancient world. Following his graduation Brown began, but did not complete, a doctoral thesis under the external supervision of Arnaldo Momigliano at that time professor of ancient history at University College London. The Modern History Faculty of the University of Oxford appointed him a special lecturer in and a reader ad hominem in He was elected a fellow of the British Academy in Brown left Oxford to become professor of modern history and head of the Department of History at Royal Holloway College in the University of London — He subsequently left Britain to become professor of classics and history in the University of California at Berkeley —86 and then Philip and Beulah Rollins Professor of History at Princeton University — He was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in , a fellow of the Medieval Academy of America in , and a resident member of the American Philosophical Society in Before joining the tenured faculty at UC Berkeley and Princeton, Brown held visiting professorships at both institutions: Other engagements as a visiting teacher have taken Brown to Toronto in the s and, since , to Hungary and Iceland.
A significant number of his former students in the UK and US have gone on to substantive academic posts. Brown has delivered several named lecture series. Richard Lectures at the University of Virginia He has also delivered a multitude of named single lectures. These include national academic occasions in the UK and US: Alexander Schmemann Lecture at St.
- Journey to Nowhere;
- Theo – Der Fuchsdämon (Sulta-Trilogie 3) (German Edition).
- .
He has also been a named lecturer, usually in retrospect, in all the universities at which he has held substantive posts: Brown has also frequently been a keynote speaker at conferences and congresses. The first volume in the series was published in The full published list to date now exceeds fifty-five titles. Following his earlier books, Brown has received some prestigious and substantial research grants. Mellon Foundation in Brown, who has a knowledge of at least 26 languages, [36] has been instrumental in the development of the study of late antiquity as a field.
Within this broad field, he has also been central in the study of Augustine, monasticism both the eremetical "holy man" and coenobitic alternatives , the cult of the saints and the practice of sexual renunciation. More recently, he has made fundamental contributions to the study of power relations in late Roman society and to the study of financial giving. He has produced a steady stream of articles several being classics in the field since , and a steady series of influential books since Janet Nelson , the distinguished British historian of the early Middle Ages, has said: He was interested in religion but not in an old-fashioned ecclesiastical history, institutional sort of way, but what made people think in this way: How did they think about religious symbols and rituals in the ways that they did?
Why did these things change? That was his agenda. He wrote mostly about late antiquity, the very early period, but he sometimes ventured into the Middle Ages and whenever he did he transformed the scene. Drawing on her interview with Brown, Ruby Shao has remarked: Few scholars research both equally, as the task demands mastery of different languages and intuitions.
His commitment has challenged him throughout his career to break into new territory, such as by examining the Desert Fathers, Syriac poetry, and languages like Greek and Coptic. Following his exposure to the works of Marrou and Piganiol as an undergraduate, and shortly after joining All Souls College as a Prize Fellow, Brown travelled in Italy in , doing research at the British School in Rome. During that time, he was especially influenced by the work of Santo Mazzarino, [39] which provided a stimulus for Brown's earliest lectures at Oxford, on return from Italy in Brown's earliest research articles concerned the Christianization of the senatorial aristocracy of Rome , and the phenomena of religious dissent and coercion in late Roman North Africa , From there, he turned to the study of Augustine's own views on the state and its use of coercion in matters of religion Italy and Africa in the fourth and early fifth centuries provided the principal context for the life of Augustine, which became the subject of Brown's substantial first book - Augustine of Hippo: This was followed by related articles that explored both the Pelagian milieu in Italy , and the relation between Christianity and local culture in Roman Africa Following the completion of Augustine , however, Brown felt "free, at last" to take a wider approach to Late Antiquity, and to turn in particular to the Near East and Central Asia.
Jones' vast magnum opus on The Later Roman Empire, A Social, Economic and Administrative Survey had appeared, on which Brown wrote a long and important review article for the Economic History Review In addition, as Augustine had been a Manichaean for many years, Brown already had a natural route into the religious history of the eastern half of the later Roman Empire and the Persian Empire.
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An article on "The Diffusion of Manichaeism in the Roman Empire" reflected the direction of his interests, and was spectacularly corroborated when, shortly after, the Cologne Mani-Codex came to light. Their work, combined with the eastward shift in his interests, prompted Brown to think increasingly of the Mediterranean as "truly distinctive".
Brown's interest in analyzing culture and religion as social phenomena, and as part of a wider context of historical change, had already been fostered by engagement with the work of Baynes, Frend and Jones. But the Annales ' influence in Brown's work can be seen in his increasing use of anthropology and sociology as interpretative tools for historical analysis. Brown was influenced by Anglo-American anthropology, himself noting the role of both a largely British tradition of social anthropology and a largely American tradition of cultural anthropology.
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Brown's views slightly shifted in the eighties. In articles and new editions Brown said that his earlier work, which had deconstructed many of the religious aspects of his field of study, needed to be reassessed. His later work shows a deeper appreciation for the specifically Christian layers of his subjects of study.