In some instances it is difficult to determine for a given set of Latin chromonyms which one was the core term. Whereas the Romance descendants of the first two adjectives have lived on until today in most of the Romance languages, reflexes of ALBUS have been supplanted as a core color term in many Romance speaking regions by the introduction of a rival Germanic base. The Latin adjective has had no serious competitors.
The data found in Buck points to such stability in the Germanic and Slavic languages. Nevertheless, the Proto-Indo European base that has been reconstructed for these items may well have referred to plant and vegetation growth, and, consequently, was not a basic color term Biggam The latter seems to have survived only in Old Italian atro and northern Italian adro as a chromonym and, frequently, with secondary figurative meanings LEI, s. Rare Fr atre is a sixteenth-century Latinism, and has retained the pejorative connotations of its Latin source.
The origin of these two forms is obscure. Both these adjectives seem to be synonyms of negro. Given the late date of the first Ladin texts, the analyst cannot determine whether this rivalry goes back to the level of regional spoken Latin or represents a later semantic evolution of the descendants of FUSCUS.
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The former left reflexes in almost all Romance territories. ALBUS records medieval examples of albo used to describe the fruit of certain plants fico albo , paper, clothing, and textiles. It also claims that the example of albo in the so-called Indovinello Veronese is probably a Latin form. ALBUS has also survived in relic areas: Does candido, well documented in medieval texts with reference to objects, cloths, textiles, reflect learned or oral transmission of the Latin base cf. Reflexes of this Germanic base are widespread in the Romance languages: Specialists have offered two different analyses for the introduction, incorporation, and diffusion of these chromonyms in the Romance languages.
Barbato] in LEI, Germanismi, fascicolo 6: Although these Romance forms document the lexical stability of rubeus in the transition from Latin to Romance, their semantic ranges show a high degree of variation. Rumanian roib designated only the coat of a horse; Spanish rubio and Portuguese ruivo indicate a reddish or strawberry blonde, especially with regard to hair color, a meaning that is found in medieval sources.
Old Italian robbio is found mainly in notarial texts to describe the color of steers, cows, and calves. The French and Catalan terms here designate a hair color. It is first attested as a color adjective in the Vulgate Exodus The semantic history reflects the medieval belief that a yellowish skin color characterized a person suffering from an excess of bile. Italianists analyze blu as an early modern Gallicism.
Its source is the Germanic base that gives Fr. The Alfonsine corpus provides no examples of adjectival azul Kasten and Nitti Most of the nine thirteenth century examples of zarco found in CORDE are in texts such as Poridat de las poridades, Judizio de las estrellas, Bocados de oro, all based on Arabic originals. Might a descendant of the Germanic base discussed above have enjoyed some degree of vitality in the spoken Romance varieties of the Iberian Peninsula?
Although azzurro is found in Old Italian texts, there is some question as to its vitality in the spoken language at earlier stages. It does not appear in Italian dialects, where one finds for blue terms cognate to standard turchino. A Brief Conclusion In comparison to the other semantic fields examined in Dworkin , Latin color terms show a relatively low degree of lexical stability in the transition to the Romance languages.
It seems that there is a great degree of variability and instability with regard to how humans physically and cognitively perceive and distinguish the various tones and shades of color. It seems reasonable to conclude that this perceptual and cognitive instability may be linguistically reflected in the historical evolution of the Latin chromatic vocabulary in the Romance languages. Tesoro della Lingua Italiana delle Origini. Their Universality and Evolution. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. University of Chicago Press.
Diccionari etimologic i complementari de la llengua catalana. Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages, Oxford: Oxford University Press, Unpublished Dissertation, Stanford University. Diccionario de la prosa castellana del Rey Alfonso X. Hispanic Seminary of Medieval Studies. Lateinisches und Romanisches aus den Etymologiae des Isidorus von Sevilla.
Das Schicksal des lateinischen Wortschatzes in den romanischen Sprachen. Max Niemeyer Verlag, Cambridge University Press, Eine darstelleung des galloromanischen sprachsatzes. Brief survey of the literature The linguistic encoding of colour — i. Semantics also frequently refers to colour terms for illustrating theoretical issues. Colour terms are of course also the subject of specific research.
Colour-naming in its different aspects linguistic, perceptive, cognitive, cultural has been a privileged area of research for linguists, psychologists and anthropologists since the 19th century. Grossmann , a study on the semantics of colour terms in Catalan, Spanish, Italian, Romanian, Latin and Hungarian, includes a history of the literature and an interdisciplinary bibliography of about studies on the colour-naming systems of different languages published between and The number of works published after this date is so high that we shall only be able to mention a few here.
The linguistic encoding of the perceptual and physical substance of colours implies a generalization process: The assessment of differences between languages should also take account of other factors such as: Also, intralinguistic differences can emerge based on variables such as age, gender, education and social status of speaker.
The most recent studies on colour terms can be framed in the more general debate regarding linguistic relativism vs. The seminal work in this respect is the book by Brent Berlin and Paul Kay. Their research was aimed at demonstrating both the existence of universals in colour lexicons and the presence of an evolutionary connection between these universals and the historical development of languages.
According to these two scholars, there exists a universal inventory of eleven perceptual categories that act as psychophysical referents for basic colour terms two to eleven in each language. These terms have a number of characteristic features: Non-basic colour terms, on the other hand, are morphologically analysable, semantically transparent and generally more recent than basic terms. When a language encodes less than eleven categories, according to Berlin and Kay, restrictions apply to the categories that are actually encoded. It attracted vast consensus, but also widespread disagreement, and literally boosted research aimed at validating or invalidating the theory of the two scholars.
Kay revisited the temporal order in which focal points are encoded by introducing the GRUE category and established correlations between the evolution of colour term systems and the synchronic heterogeneity of a linguistic community. It was again Kay, this time in collaboration with McDaniel , who introduced: Other important studies were authored by Kay et al. Actually, the authors themselves did not rule out the possibility that 12 basic terms could exist. These studies are based on experiments with informants work with colour arrays - naming, mapping, identifying focal point; color-eliciting tasks, etc.
An interesting research angle is provided by Taylor et al. The literature on colour terms in Italian is rather substantial. In outlining the history of blu, Giacalone Ramat also dwells on the semantic relationships between azzurro, blu, celeste and turchino in contemporary Italian and observes that blu took over azzurro as the term used for all the shades of the BLUE area. Also the works by Kristol and Grossmann move from a Romance perspective and, from the methodological point of view, are couched in the framework of lexical semantics.
Also in written language, celeste denotes light shades whereas turchino and blu denote darker shades of the BLUE area the turchino - blu dualism is accounted for by the purist preference in the 19th century for turchino to the detriment of blu, a word of French origin. Grossmann further underlines that the extension of one of the two terms, azzurro or blu, or both, as also their degree of usage are subject to diatopic, diastratic and diaphasic variation.
Building on previous synchronic and diachronic studies on the colour lexicon in Italian and Polish, the author broadens the research field to a number of ethnolinguistic and cultural aspects. Many recent psycholinguistic studies on the BLUE area in Italian adopt methodologies similar to those adopted by the aforementioned studies on Russian and other languages, i.
Significant in this respect are the answers to a task on hyponymy relations collected by Sandford The structure of naming systems that fall within our interest has also been studied in other Romance languages spoken in Italy and Italo-Romance dialects. Kristol , authored two specific studies on the history and usage of azzurro, blu, celeste and turchino in Italo-Romance dialects.
Based on data extracted from material collected in the period for the linguistic and ethnographic atlas of Italy and Southern Switzerland by K. These are different and independent adaptations of the French term bleu, whose usage is influenced by diastratic and diaphasic factors. Sardinian colour terms have been studied by Giacalone Ramat and Wolf Giacalone Ramat points out a dialectal differentiation as regards central terms in the BLUE area: Various morphological features of Italian colour terms, i.
There are also specific works on the figurative, idiomatic and symbolic meanings of Italian colour terms. Among them, with specific reference to new coinages, the rather substantial study by Fresu and, in a contrastive perspective, Arcaini , on Italian and French, Philip , on Italian and English, Bronowski and Skuza , on Italian and Polish, Ross on Italian and Dutch, Bocz on Italian and Hungarian. The term with the broader meaning in the BLUE area was caerul e us cf.
It was used for describing the colour of the sky, the sea, the blue band in a rainbow and a colouring agent. Also cyaneus and lividus denoted dark shades: As for light shades, with particular reference to eyes, caesius was used for describing those tending to grey, whereas another Grecism, glaucus, referred to greenish shades.
The adjective venetus, that denoted in particular one of the colours of the auriga in the circus, probably originated from the ethnic noun Venetus, name of the inhabitants of the area where a specific corporation of charioteers originally came from. The basic terms of the majority of Romance languages either come from Persian through Arabic Sp. It should be noted that some of the aforementioned Latin terms can be found in Italian, i.
These terms are learned words borrowed from Latin and, with the exception of livido, typical of the literary register. They are attested since the earliest times of the history of Italian and are still in usage. Italian colour terms in the BLUE area The availability of large and searchable corpora makes it now possible to deepen the study of the distribution of the central terms, i.
Our research focuses on the semantic relations between these terms at different stages of the development of the Italian language, up to contemporary Italian. The data we will be discussing are taken from the following corpora: To start with let us briefly recap the history of azzurro, blu, celeste and turchino. It is attested in Latin already in the 9th century as lazurus and in 13th century Old Italian with numerous formal variants see in TLIO: Originally, it denoted lapis lazuli.
The semantic transformation into a name for colouring agents and into proper colour term had already happened in Old Italian, where azzurro was used for indicating the colour of cloths, clothes, heraldry elements and also of the sky lo die …. In all diachronic corpora azzurro is extremely frequent. It can be found mainly though not exclusively in literary texts, where it qualifies the colour of various entities sky, sea, lakes, mountains, flowers, birds; eyes; gem stones; drapes, cloths, clothes, coats of arms, etc.
Or are they maybe white? Blu is a Germanism that entered Italian at the end of the 17th century under the influence of French bleu. In diachronic corpora it occurs with a limited frequency and it is also used as a noun. It denotes darker shades and, for the most part, refers to clothes, occasionally objects, eyes, the sea and the sky. The heyday of bleu came to an end in the Forties of the 20th century, when the Fascist regime listed it among the foreign terms that needed to be expunged from the Italian language, indicating blu as a replacement Raffaelli In Old Italian we can already find colour terms that can be traced back to the Late Latin term blavus documented in the 7th century, cf.
These are bioio or biodo, bloio, broio and biavo or biado, blavo , used almost exclusively for denoting the colour of cloths cf. The same applies to its derivative biavetto or biaveto, blaveto, biadetto, biadeto and other terms associated with biavo sbiavo, sbiavato, sbiadato, sbiadito, etc. In contrast with the modern usage of blu, they all seem to denote lighter shades.
In texts dating from after the 14th century biavo, biado, biadetto are only occasionally found: Many of the modern dialectal forms of blu recorded in Pfister might well be continuators of the Late Latin blavus. Others, to the contrary, derive directly from the French bleu and entered into the dialects at different times starting from the Middle Ages , depending on the degree of contact with the French culture.
Celeste formally derives from Latin, but the adjective caelestis did not carry a colour meaning in Classical Latin. The semantic shift came about already in Old Italian. In some contexts, the meaning of the adjective can be ambiguous especially when it qualifies light, lamp, ray, etc. In diachronic corpora celeste is far less frequent as a noun than azzurro. In Old Italian it usually refers to the colour of cloths and clothes, but also of gem stones, and it denotes a shade lighter than azzurro. In more recent literary language celeste is also used in connection with eyes, water, air, a number of objects and occasionally, by way of metonymical extension, even with people who wear this colour.
It is documented already in the 14th century and it was usually used to qualify cloths, clothes, standards: Rather common in dialects, as recorded in Schweickard , turchino is not exclusive to literary language. In diachronic corpora it is also used as a noun and it qualifies first and foremost cloths, clothes and various objects, but often also eyes, shadows, the sky, the sea, mountains, the air.
Between the 19th and the 20th century its usage spreads to denote the darker shades, right at the time when blu becomes an important competitor. As of today turchino is an obsolete term that occurs almost exclusively in a limited number of idiomatic expressions, as we shall see. In order to better understand the usage of azzurro, blu, celeste and turchino in texts dating from the last decades of the 19th century and 20th century we mainly searched two corpora: Diacoris different kinds of prose texts dating from to and la Repubblica newspaper texts dating from to Before delving into the analysis of collocations we shall present a few figures.
Table 1 illustrates the number of occurrences of the four terms in the reference corpora: The frequency of this type of collocations for azzurro is ascribable to the fact that it is considered as national colour of the Republic of Italy. The colour was originally used in the standards, flags, military scarves, etc. The national jersey is called maglia azzurra, even though the actual shade can be darker or lighter, and azzurro is used, by virtue of metonymic extension, to qualify or denote the athletes, coaches, sites, abstract concepts and ultimately anything that revolves around the national teams.
The terms azzurro, blu, celeste, that are used to indicate the jerseys, flags etc. As illustrated in Table 2, Diacoris provides us with other interesting numbers as regards the trend of occurrences in the 5 chronological sub-periods to which the texts of the corpus belong: The four adjectives qualify nouns that roughly belong to the same semantic areas but occur with different degrees of frequency depending on the area.
Let us analyze in greater detail the collocations for the three terms that, at present, are the most common, i. All three, and blu in particular, qualify first and foremost nouns that denote cloths, clothes and clothing accessories. Azzurro and celeste denote the lighter shades, blu the darker ones: Darker and lighter shades can be present in one and the same garment, for example a suit or a shirt with blu and azzurro pinstripes. With reference to the human body, eyes are azzurro par excellence, much more rarely so celeste or blu, whereas blu is selected for skin spots caused by bruises or cyanosis or to indicate the colour that lips turn to because of the cold.
Azzurro and blu are also used with reference to veins and dyes, as is the case for hair, nails or tattooed skin. Both azzurro and blu, rarely so celeste, describe the colour or one of the colours of various birds, butterflies, fish, and occur in names of taxonomic categories e. The colour or colours of some flowers, like iris or windflower, is azzurro or blu; hydrangeas, bluebells and gentians can also be celeste. The colour of the sky, and in particular of the day-time bright sky, is mainly azzurro, but after sunset it generally becomes blu. Both blu and azzurro denote the colour of the sea, of rivers and lakes, etc.
Gem stones like diamonds and sapphires are azzurro and blu but also celeste, which, to the contrary, is only seldom used for the colour of the sky, of the sea, etc. Artificial light shed by lighting equipment is both azzurro and blu, but with a sharp preference for blu when referring to flashing warning lights.
Football Club du Nord 17
As for other contexts in which the three adjectives qualify names of inanimate entities, apart from the previously mentioned garments, there are numerous references to the colour of decor, furniture and ornaments, as also of buildings and building materials. Blu, azzurro and celeste are all used for identifying colouring agents and colours used in paintings.
Blu is slightly predominant over azzurro, and much more so over celeste, in denoting colours present in flags, standards, banners, etc. In particular, blu is the international flag awarded to beaches and marinas that comply with sustainable development criteria. Blu is prevalent over azzurro, and both over celeste, also when denoting the colour of various means of transport, in particular cars, but also airplanes, vessels, etc.
It denotes darker shades and it qualifies first and foremost garments, but also the sky, the sea, eyes, etc. Metonymic connections and semantic associations derived from symbolic values account for the presence of the four adjectives, and in particular of azzurro and blu, in many other contexts not yet mentioned. We shall illustrate but a few examples of stable collocations that occur frequently in our corpora.
In the past decades, for example, azzurro has been associated with the Forza Italia party. Azzurro and blu, and to a much lesser extent celeste and turchino, also occur in different types of proper nouns: Azzurra; as both feminine and masculine: Celeste , institutions Arma azzurra is the name of the Italian air force , companies Blu was a telecommunications operator , establishments e. Other terms of the BLUE area are formed by means of various morphological devices.
The majority of derived adjectives belongs to the first of the following two types: These terms with the sole exception of azzurrino and, to a lesser extent, azzurrognolo and bluastro, are rare or absent in the la Repubblica and Diacoris corpora. Azzurrino also denotes, by metonymy, young athletes of Italian national teams. Featured in the corpora are: Instances of bluissimo can only be found on the Internet Googled on It should be noted that Italian can express intensification of a given quality also by means of the prefix stra-, which however is seldom known to modify colour terms.
Straazzurro can only be found on the Internet, whereas strablu is a lexicalized form that denotes a kind of cheese. Azzurro, blu, celeste and turchino can also be bases for the derivation of nouns and verbs. Timmermann , formed by suffixation, parasynthesis or conversion, are mainly based on azzurro. Internet also provides us with adjectives derived from the stative verbs in -eggiare, such as azzurreggiante, blueggiante, turchineggiante, that denote the state of being azzurro, blu, turchino.
Azzurro, blu, celeste and turchino as constituents of compounds A commonly used device for enlarging the inventory of colour terms is forming compound words made up of two adjectives or an adjective and a noun. These constructions, frequently nonce-formations in both literary and journalistic texts, confront scholars with the same problems as all other adjectival compounds in Italian, i. When considering the relationship between the constituents, we have two groups: Among coordinate compounds we can further identify three subtypes which spread in usage from the 18th century onwards, with some isolated examples in earlier times: The majority of compounds found in corpora are left-headed subordinate constructions.
Most are documented since the 18th century, with the exception of sub-type 1 , already attested in Old Italian. The first constituent is the hyperonym of the construction while the second constituent acts as modifier. These compounds describe a particular shade of the colour denoted by the head. These constructions are very frequent in the la Repubblica and Diacoris corpora and the array of adjectival modifiers is vast.
Kristol , Grossmann An interesting case in point is represented by the names coined for car body colours cf. The apparently arbitrary selection of nominal modifiers can often be accounted for by the cultural salience of their referents in the Italian linguistic community, and in some cases is influenced by foreign models. Nouns used as colour terms The last device for creating colour terms, which we shall only briefly mention here since it is less relevant to our topic, is recourse to names of entities for denoting, by metonymy, a colour an analysis of the morphological characteristics of this type of lexemes, that can be interpreted as the result of a conversion process, is given in Thornton These terms are probably generated by ellipsis of phrases like: Our analysis of the historical evolution and contemporary use of azzurro, celeste, blu and turchino in written Italian suggests that: Further material for studying the history of the semantic relationship among the four terms could be offered by research on specialized technical texts such as treatises on painting, minerals, gems, etc.
Journal of Greek Linguistics 7. Studia Romanica Posnaniensia Studi Italiani di Linguistica Teorica ed Applicata 25 3. Language and Cognition 12 1. Acta Linguistica Hungarica 61 2. Their universality and evolution. Blue in Old English: An interdisciplinary semantic study. Journal of the Optical Society of America A 31 4. Journal of the Steward Anthropological Society New directions in colour studies. Studia Romanica et Linguistica Thorunensia 2. Rivista Italiana di Onomastica Journal of Linguistics Progress in colour studies. Lo spettacolo delle parole: Studi di storia linguistica e di onomastica in ricordo di Sergio Raffaelli.
In Lombardi Vallauri, E. Studi in onore di Raffaele Simone. In Casanova Herrero, E. British Journal of Psychology Transactions of the Philological Society 93 1. Journal of Child Language 25 2. Italia linguistica nuova ed antica: Studi linguistici in memoria di Oronzo Parlangeli. Studi sulla struttura semantica degli aggettivi di colore in catalano, castigliano, italiano, romeno, latino ed ungherese. Language and Society 4. Color categories in thought and language. The World Color Survey. American Anthropologist 4. Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. Studi Italiani di Linguistica Teorica ed Applicata 21 Language and Cognitive Processes Color and cognition in Mesoamerica: Constructing categories as vantages.
University of Texas Press. The language of color in the Mediterranean: An anthology on linguistic and ethnographic aspects of color terms. Die Bezeichnungen der blauen Farbe in den romanischen Sprachen. Rassegna Italiana di Linguistica Applicata 19 2. La formazione delle parole in italiano. Trends and topics in computer vision: Color Research and Application Color Research and Application. Cross-Cultural Research 39 1. Atti della IX Conferenza nazionale del colore Firenze, settembre Bilanci e prospettive degli studi danteschi alle soglie del nuovo millennio.
Atti del Convegno internazionale Verona-Ravenna, ottobre VI birrus - brac c hiolum. A corpus-based investigation of colour words in English and Italian. Rassegna Italiana di Linguistica Applicata 32 3. Le parole straniere sostituite dall'Accademia d'Italia Rassegna Italiana di Linguistica Applicata 21 3. Dizionario storico dei derivati da nomi geografici e da nomi di persona.
Derivati dai nomi geografici: New perspectives on colour 1st-4th April , Goldsmiths, University of London. Etudes Romanes de Brno 31 1. Language Sciences 32 2. Journal of Slavic Languages and Literatures Opera del Vocabolario Italiano. Proceedings of the Workshop of the International Group for the Study of language standardization and vernacularization of literacy April , , Department of Language.
Adoro... Sangue Cigano
Investigating Italian basic colour terms: Atti del convegno di dialettologia in onore del prof. Remo Bracchi Bormio, settembre Subject, object and purpose Although the physiological perception of colours by the human species has not changed, the cultural filter creates differences between their connotations across populations.
This is reflected in the language that functions as a linguistic prism. The present study is cross-cultural and cross-geographical, covering languages of the Eastern and Western end of the European Union: Polish on the one hand, Portuguese and Spanish on the other hand. It aims to compare the use of secondary colour names: By showing the presence of selected colour names in the language idioms, phrases, collocations, etc. Even though they still pertain to the class of Basic Colour Terms, they are usually described as a mixture of two other basic colours i. Consequently, we call them secondary colour terms.
Let us remember that Berlin and Kay suggest the existence of a universal lexical category: Based on the hypothesis of a neuro-physiological nature, according to which the ocular apparatus of all human beings focuses as central to a finite number of parts of the spectrum, the lexical items that are beyond this share certain characteristics which identify them as basic names effectively3.
A notable contribution is the work of Kay and McDaniel which emphasises that the lexical organisation of the spectrum has characteristics of a continuum, so no discreet segmentation is possible: What is more, in the latest research the adjectives of colour appear as polysemic entities cf. The polysemy of the adjectives of colour makes that they may appear in different contexts and be subject to very different meanings. The same chromatic adjective can 2 In this text we have opted for the Berlin and Kay optics , although there are more classifications: Russian with two equivalents of blue: See also Kristol b.
Going back to the reasons for our choice, we would like to emphasise that purple, orange, pink and grey are not only the least studied versus white, black and red , but, at the same time, one could expect that they seem more likely to show potential differences between the three languages in question. Analysis Our study is basically synchronic, but it also contains information of a diachronic nature etymology and, possibly, the history of considered terms.
The sources are mainly lexicographic: Such a study, however, would overlook the dimensions of the present contribution and we leave this question for the consideration of other interested researchers. We will not discuss this problem here as it is not relevant for the purposes of our study. We take into consideration every kind of expression that contains the name of one of the four colours we are interested in.
Some examples have become entrenched in language because they name a specific historical event, situation or person, largely commented on and generally known in a given cultural milieu, such as e. Nevertheless, the names of colours used in these expressions do not achieve new meanings. Beyond these expressions, they cannot be applied elsewhere, so they are to be omitted in our analysis. Let us add that we do not take into account this part of semantics of analysed units that refers to objects and not colours e.
Polish Colours are an enormously popular topic among Slavic linguists. There are works that analyse the socio-cultural connotations of colours cf. Tokarski , semantic-cultural approaches cf.
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There are numerous articles that deal with colours in Polish literature; for a more complete bibliography, we refer those interested to the monograph by Komorowska In order to analyse Polish colour names, the following sources have been used: Even if the motivation of this more ancient word was more explicit for Polish speakers, the final source of both remains identical.
Fioletowy is used only in a few expressions related to the physical aspect of someone whose body is reacting to external cold or internal alcohol consumption stimuli or who is experiencing an intense emotion anger. These usages have a clear concrete basis and refer to the colour of body or face resulting from concentration of blood under the skin. Albeit, the adjective can denote described states even if the physical aspect of the person in question remains unchanged.
It is used exclusively in its concrete meaning. Szary is also a frequent epithet in names of some species and diseases: As it has been shown, when it comes to figurative meanings, szary refers rather to negative qualities: They are certainly due to an undefined character of this colour. As a curiosity, let us mention an example which is contrary to the last one. However, in this case it is not the grey colour that is stressed, but the goose which is accidentally grey. That is why this picturesque expression has not entered into our corpus.
Portuguese There have not been many studies about Portuguese colour names. Said Ali offers a brief and general overview of the subject. Zavaglia and Moreira Brangel discuss problems related to colour terms from the point of view of lexicographic description. Moreover, there are works on colours in the toponymy of Portugal: With the purpose of analysing Portuguese colour names, the following sources have been used: When it comes to figurative meanings, roxo denotes different states related to intense physical factors experienced by somebody: As we have already explained it for Polish, these usages come from referring to the colour of body or face resulting from the concentration of blood under the skin.
It seems that roxo can describe the aforementioned states even if the physical aspect of the person in question remains unchanged Vague and undecided and mysterious as a god who is hiding behind your veils full of secrets! You do not express the end nor the fall, like black which represents the night and sin, and purple that symbolises the crepuscule and death.
You do not express the beginning nor faith, like pink or yellow, that denounce the aurora, and red, that stands for passion. You do not express naivety nor candidness, like blue, nor contingency, like green and brown, with which nature colours many of its mortal forms. The first one is descriptive: This symbolic meaning attributed to roxo seems to be exclusively literary and is probably related to Christian commemorations of funerals, Advent and Lent, during which purple attire is donned.
We suppose the second one is derived from the first meaning, which is probably related to orange as a fruit, not a colour. Both terms are invariable. The adjective in question can appear in names of some species, e. It is to be noted that its concrete meaning produced a derivative verb with a figurative meaning: Metaphorical usages of cor-de- rosa show its extremely positive connotations, related to happiness and optimism Table 8 At first referring to the colour of ashes, this adjective has a clear relational origin. As it has been demonstrated, its figurative meanings are rather negative ones, denoting lack of luminosity, character and interest.
Spanish In fact, the works devoted to the chromatic problems in Spanish cover a very broad spectrum, including: Michelena , Cabo Villaverde , colour in place names cf. They have similar, very positive connotations. Finally, a number of works dedicated to colour in literary work, to cite a few examples: In the analysis of Spanish the following have been taken into account: Spanish presents curiosities also at a formal level: While violeta originally comes from French, morado is a derivative of the name of the mulberry.
They have almost simultaneous attestations as a colour name: Neither violeta nor morado has a wide usage except for the name of a plant or a colour. If any, they are rather negative: Morado is also used to name some vegetal species: DRAE documents the chromatic meaning in its 12th position. The visible contrast with yellow pasar del rosa al amarillo only underlines the positive aspect of this chromatic term. At the same time, it is mainly the name of a fruit and that is why its chromatic meaning is not the first one.
As the colour term, naranja appears relatively late: That is why, perhaps, there are not many special usages in Spanish The contemporary analysis of phrases in Spanish formed with colour adjective leads to the conclusion that grey is commonly associated with sadness and melancholy, intellectual or emotional mediocrity, dull objects, worthless, without particular qualities.
These meanings confirm the connotative approach to black rather than a mixture of black and white. Observations and conclusions From an etymological point of view, the names of the four analysed colours can be classified in the following groups: One could then expect that various connotations have developed mostly around the names of colours from the first group, as they have existed in the language for a long time and they are morphologically unanalysable. Consequently, the connotations should be less represented around the terms which are most recent. Of all the four colours considered, pink and grey are the ones that have developed the most figurative meanings, even if the names of grey have completely distinct origins and the names of pink appeared later on if compared to the other adjectives in all languages analysed.
Thus a range of possible usages is obtained, concentrated around bad emotions anger and some anomalous physical states heavy cold, drunkenness. Spanish seems not to associate purple with these situations, maybe with the exception of excessive gluttony. However, it rather links it to superficial wisdom and difficulties. These are still not very positive connotations. Strangely enough, orange has practically not developed any figurative meanings in any of the languages considered.
Pink is generally related to strong positive emotions in all these languages: This is indisputably the colour with the best associations from our group. Nevertheless, there are also some connotations of pink that our languages do not share: An undefined character of grey somewhere between black and white, but also between red and green makes its linguistic image dubious, polyvalent cf.
It is frequently an indeterminate colour, which is reflected in Polish and Spanish. Mediocrity, average character, nothing special — these are the connotations of grey. In fact, there are two possible lines of interpretation: All these observations support the hypothesis that, in Spanish, only two colours are true metaphorical bases: Such a hypothesis seems to be valid for Polish and Portuguese as well.
The presence of the names of colours in language shows us the importance of the visual side of our perception of the world. We associate colours with emotions, characteristic features, ideas, notions and petrify them in some expressions that are sometimes identic and sometimes divergent in a given cultural-geographical area. Still, Europe, at least seen through the prism of secondary colour terms, seems rather homogenous and there is more union than disunion in their perception. Symbols and abbreviations Hisp. Studia Romanica Posnaniensia, vol.
Berlin Brent, Kay Paul Revue Roumaine de Linguistique, vol. Syntagmes nominaux dans les langues romanes et slaves. Des mots et du texte aux conceptions de la description linguistique. Cabo Villaverde Javier Studi sulla semantica degli aggettivi di colore in catalano, castigliano, italiano, romeno, latino ed ungherese. Komorowska Ewa, Stanulewicz Danuta eds. Cahiers de Lexicologie, vol. Moreira Brangel Larissa Roca Garriga Pedro Said Ali Manuel In Said Ali Manuel. Schmitz John Robert Papers and Studies in Contrastive Linguistics, vol. Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes. Varela Fernando, Kubarth Hugo In Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, vol.
Indeed, it is easy to understand how a colour that absorbs rather than reflects beams of light has become an obvious metaphor for all that is dark and sad, whereas branco white has become the symbol of happiness and purity. When we consider the labelling of skin colour, black also presents itself as a contrast to white.
The etymology of preto seems to be more problematic.
Negro and preto have been present in the Portuguese language since the 13th century. Once again, the black colour is related to pain and the white colour alva to pleasure: Contemporary dictionaries I will use Infopedia, an online dictionary commonly used as a reference dictionary for contemporary European Portuguese keep both meanings.
Here, negro, as well as preto adj. The definition for preto is almost exactly the same21 due to the fact that negro and preto are seen as synonyms. As a noun, both negro and preto can refer to an individual who is dark skinned, but in this case, preto is considered to be pejorative.
However, a diachronic analysis reveals an important difference: Nevertheless, an on-line corpus23 survey shows that it is possible to find evidence of the adjective negro referring to skin colour or race even before the 15th century: We only find the latter used with this meaning in the 16th century: O pay era preto e gentil-homem de bom corpo, mayor que o do filho. Antiga moeda de Portugal.
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Cor negra, ou tinta negra. When referring to clothing, the colour black negro or preto appears in association with penitence and, in general, with sadness and mourning: Homem da terra dos negros, ou filho de pays negros. Preto tambem se chama o escravo Preto. Pretinho, tambem val o mesmo que pequeno escravo. Servulus niger black man, son of black parents, slave. It should be noted that the negative connotations that later extended to skin colour, and which were already presentin Latin, are regarded as a mischance: Apparently, the black skin colour was considered a punishment from God, and in this instance, Bluteau offers us some hypotheses which were circulating at the time for the origin of black skin: As a result of Portuguese expansion overseas, the figure of the African slave became increasingly frequent from the mid-fifteenth century onwards, mainly as a character in theatre.
Aqueste gente meu taibo, terra nossa nunca folgar, andar sempre guerra, nam saber qui que balhar terra vossa, balhar que saber como nossa terra. E logo meu negro, Senhora, balhar. However, in the verses written by Anrique da Mota, which present us with a clergyman who loses a wine barrel only to then accuse his slave , the subject has already become a black slave negra: Fala com a sua negra. Pois a negra nam tem culpa, pera que lha quero dar? A few years later the theatre texts by Gil Vicente have several black characters: Negro que faze folia Gil Vicente always used the word negro, never preto.
Therefore, it appears that, in the early 16th century, the former was the only Portuguese word that existed to denote black skin colour. Prieto vienes de Castilla? In fact, we can find pardo used as a reference to skin colour as early as the 14thth centuries, such as in Miragres de Santiago: According to Corominas , s. Then, pardo came to designate the color of horses and other animals, and finally any dark object.
In the 15thth centuries pardo and pardilho was also a kind of dark and mixed fabric Houaiss , s. Dai a Deos, bem canta o pardo. Bluteau even highlights some popular proverbs concerning this animal: Nevertheless, in the writings of Cardoso, Bento Pereira, and Bluteau, the word mulato can also be found applied to a human being: Bluteau demonstrates quite clearly the metaphorical twist on the original meaning: Therefore, ever since the 16th century, mulato has not simply been restricted to animals, but has also referred to an individual born from two different species, thus combining the notion of mixing both species and colours.
Yet, Machado , s. Metice, mestice were common in the th centuries and are, probably, an adaptation of the Portuguese or the Spanish word. Ancient Provencal had mestiz adj. Closing remarks Although negro has always been the word of preference to designate non white skin probably because it can encompass any skin which is dark , by the end of the 15th century the Portuguese felt the need to introduce new lexicon.
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The variety of cultures with which the Portuguese came into contact in the 16th century must have stimulated this need to specify colors and backgrounds. This desire for specification was possibly due to the fact that negro was perceived as an excessively broad term. But from the 16th century onwards, when the expansionist overseas movement resulted in new intercultural contacts, skin colour could no longer be reduced to a binary colour system: Therefore, the need to give names to different skin tones, in particular the 'mixed' skin, led to a common strategy for extending the lexicon: This is what seems to have occurred in this particular semantic field: With regard to the naming of skin colour, negro and preto are clearly opposed to branco; but, as the world is not simply 'black and white', the colour of the skin cannot be exclusively reduced to these two colours, especially with the new inter cultural contacts brought about with beginning of Portuguese overseas expansion.
New experiences arise from already existing concepts, and indeed, the same applies to lexicon. In essence, if we go back to the roots of words and study their etymological chain, we may reach simpler forms and more 'primitive' concepts. Imprensa Nacional-Casa da Moeda. Maia, Clarinda de Azevedo Silva, Isabel Pinto et al orgs. Universidade de Lisboa-Centro de Estudos de Teatro, ], http: Vento do Norte is her great leap forward as a musical artist.
Much like Melody Gardot, she captures the flavor of the past with enough modern flair to make it all sound fresh. On the basis of sound and style, of framing Ms. Elsewhere the narratives span sensual yearning viz. In short, Bianca Rossini has put it all together. With sonics as rich as its texts and vocals, Vento do Norte touches the heart in a lasting way. Alhoewel Bianca Rossini geboren werd in Rio de Janeiro, verhuisde ze tijdens haar tienerjaren naar de USA om daar haar studies als artieste voort te zetten.
Ook schreef ze drie boeken: Ze staat bekend voor haar sensuele interpretaties van bossa nova, samba en bolero en staat op de eerste rij van de huidige golf van bossa nova die L. Nu is de derde cd er, en opnieuw ben ik verliefd op die warme Braziliaanse stem, en die bossa nova muziek. De titeltrack opent, en betekent noordenwind. Bianca schreef hem samen met Peter Roberts. Bianca, ik blijf naar meer verlangen, en blijf verliefd op jouw Braziliaanse flair en bossa nova muziek!
Each track is a gem, luxuriant, gleaming and intimate, imbued with timeless traditions and ingenuity. Her songs poetic, richly grounded in generations of traditions for which she clearly has deep affection, not to mention expertise and facility. The performances, lithe and life-filled, match all that in every note, every nicely turned phrase.
But what stands out most on Vento de Norte is her honesty, both emotional and artistic. But what she really wants is for us to love this music, and all she brings to it, as much as she does. While I could listen to Bossa Nova all day — for the most part, it would be mood music. Ten originals, all with lyrics by Ms. That intimacy is what sets Ms. Rossini apart from many bossa nova vocalists — all emotion, never indifference. As intimate as a whisper in the ear, and quite possibly as suggestive, as well.
Makes me wish I spoke Portuguese. Multi-talented producer-arranger and man of many instruments piano, bass, strings, whistling! Peter Roberts contributes heavily to the frame that goes around this talented vocalist. This is a third album for Los Angeles-based Ms. Rossini, which even in its most languid moments, refuses to be relegated to the background. Born in Rio de Janeiro and currently based in Beverly Hills, Bianca Rossini has had great success in several different fields.
In addition, she composed music for Chicago Hope and The Sentinel. Bianca is a poet and an author and has published 3 books: Love in Black and White, a collection of poems with art by the most popular and influential contemporary landscape photographer Michael Kenna. Julia — Confessions of a Brazilian Super Model is a semi-autobiographical tale based in the years Bianca was an international model.
For more than a decade she produced and hosted The Bianca Rossini Show, a weekly cable television talk show seen around the country. Her magazine column about the arts in Hollywood was featured in several lifestyle magazines in Los Angeles and online. Born in Rio de Janeiro, the singer-songwriter currently lives in Los Angeles. A beach vacation without ever leaving home. Bossa nova has been popular in this country for over 60 years, and it still has a large following bIaNCa rossINI is a Brazilian-born vocalist who has resided in California for many years where she has worked as an actress and singer She has just released her third album of bossa nova tunes, Vento do Norte apaixonada music -bDm records this one all original tunes with her lyrics and music by several composers, on some of which she also was a co-composer There are a variety of musicians on the ten tracks Rossini has a voice that is smooth, welcoming and warm With most of the lyrics in Portuguese, it is difficult to judge them, but they flow nicely, and the final results are most pleasing Bossa nova sounds are particularly welcome at social gatherings or those moments when you want to relax and escape Vento do Norte will be a welcome visit for those times.
But when she does, they showcase all of her many skills, enlivened by the rich, emotional Brazilian roots that are at the heart of her art. The songs covered everything from captivating bossa novas to ballads and rhythm tunes. Understandably, the often uneven aspects of the material reflected the fact that Rossini works with a range of writing partners. But it was her dark-toned voice and dramatic presentation that brought all the music together into one engaging interpretation after another.
Bianca Rossini's 'Kiss of Brasil' will live for a very long time. In a field as overpopulated as Brazilian jazz, the only way to make an impression is with originality. Bianca Rossini is an original. Like Kiss of Brasil before it, Meu Amor is a keeper, an exciting new work from an artist steeped in classicism but with an ear toward the future. Her new EP Meu Amor is a continuation of the beguiling sound that we experienced with her last outing. So, as that one was a "Kiss of Brasil," Meu Amor is the embrace.
You feel the subtle excitement of romantic nights in a Brazilian breeze. Meu Amor - listen and enjoy! Got a heart for the classic bossa nova sound of Jobim and Gilberto? Keep your ears open for this one. Instead of choosing the safe path of recording brazilian classic songs, all compositions on Bianca Rossini debut album, Kiss of Brasil are originals, a bold move for this brazilian native living in California. But as it turns out, Rossini is not just a good singer, she is a talented songwriter, so the result is an album with a delicate sound and romantic, sometimes sexy lyrics. Rossini playful phrasing captivates and seduces the listener in the bossas "Perfume de Verao", "Coracao de Oro" and "Tarde em Copacabana", another place in Rio that has inspired lots of songs.
Time to get Cultured…. Intrigued by the sounds and melodies, I went back and found this follow up ep, which was released a couple of years ago when she was supposedly testing the waters for future projects. There are only four songs, all written by the singer, and each one is like a single sample of a potato chip; you want more!
Old school bossa fans should flock to this temptress! Said Bossa Nova great Flora Purim, "I was enchanted by Bianca the first time I heard her sing, and now after listening to her album Kiss of Brasil, I'm as impressed with her songwriting as I am with her singing. Kiss of Brasil offers mesmerizing songs, like: Taking a cue from her friend and co-writer, music critic Don Heckman, Bianca created an album that is sure to fan the flames of romance.
Bianca grew up with international musical influences, and has always had a gift for composing lyrics and music. Bianca has stopped counting after writing more than songs in less than 2 years! Bianca Rossini, cantora brasileira radicada na California USA , em seu debute no mundo da musica traz uma grata surpresa: Voz, bossa e poesia. Bianca zingt sensueel en in het Portugees.
Romantiek is niet uit de lucht en de songs getuigen van passie. Zangeres Flora Purim zei over haar: Je hoeft echt geen Portugees te begrijpen om meegesleurd te worden door deze muziek. Het lijdt geen twijfel, dit zijn hits in wording! You transport me to that magical country of Brasil on the wings of your heavenly songs. Music is so creative and inspiring Love all of these songs!!
Every song is so sensual and moving