Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte. Handbuch der Klassischen Altertums-Wissenschaft ; 5,2. Griechen und Semiten auf dem Isthmus von Korinth religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen. Python a study of Delphic myth and its origins. Fontenrose, Joseph Eddy From myth to reason? The Mycenaean origin of Greek mythology. Nilsson, Martin Persson Kadmos the Phoenician a study in Greek legends and the Mycenaean Age. Zeus in early Greek mythology and religion from prehistoric times to the Early Archaic period. La religion des Spartiates: New heroes in antiquity from Achilles to Antinoos. Travelling heroes Greeks and their myths in the epic age of Homer.
Repertorium zur intermedialen Stoff- und Motivgeschichte. Athenian myths and institutions words in action. L'espace et le temps. Triptolemos Ikonographie einer Agrar- und Mysteriengottheit. Centre national de la recherche scientifique France. Geschichte der griechischen Religion. Bis zur griechischen Weltherrschaft.
Die griechischen Culte und Mythen in ihren Beziehungen zu den orientalischen Religionen. Homeric sites around Troy. Corpus cultus deae Syriae: Van Berg, Paul-Louis Rites de passage et transgressions. Die Athena Parthenos des Phidias und ihre Nachbildungen: Colloque international 16 ; ? The supreme gods of the Bosporan kingdom: The supreme gods of the Bosporan kingdom celestial Aphrodite and the most high god. Religions in the Graeco-Roman world, The creative poet studies on the treatment of myths in Greek poetry.
Bulletin of the Institute of classical studies. Supplement, ISSN ; Bulletin supplement - University of London. Institute of Classical Studies ; Breslauer philologische Abhandlungen ; 8. Darstellungen des Orpheus in der Antike. Zur Darstellung Polyphems in der Aeneis. By exchange for property including money. Price paid at the nuptials; or b. Bride received on credit. Extent of Wife-Purchase Howard, I, North and South America. Among Hebrews and Arabs. Among Hindus, Hellenes, and Romans. Among Slavs, Celts, and Germans.
Much matter may be found in the 9th, 11th, 15th, and the other Reports of the Bureau of Ethology. Statement of the problem: Right of choice by the female. Fighting for mates by the males. Colors, songs, antics, and other so-called "secondary- sexual characters. Wooing among primitive men. Fighting or contending for mates by the males. Ornaments and other means of sexual attraction Westermarck, chap, ix; Howard, I, ff. Extent of liberty of choice among primitive men: Meaning of wooing gifts or of exchange of presents Howard I, Are these a weakened form of purchase?
Are they sometimes capable of other explanations? Decay of the Purchase Contract and the Rise of Dower. Early History of Divorce. General Character of Early Jurisprudence. Elaborate systems of unwritten law. Confused mass of custom relating to divorce; yet the law is often surprisingly just.
Marriage dissolved at pleasure of either spouse. Marriage dissolved by mutual consent. Divorce the sole right of the man. For certain specified causes: Divorce at pleasure of wife or husband, sometimes on definite grounds. The Form of Divorce Howard, I, By bill, proclamation, symbolic act, or other ceremony. As to disposal of the children. As to disposal of property.
As to second marriage or remarriage of the parties. Frequency of Divorce Howard, I, Old English Wife Purchase. The Beweddung or Betrothal: Question as to existence of wife-capture among our ancestors; significance of the fact that valid mar- riages were sometimes accomplished by rape. Theory and uses of the ''real contract" among the Germans. The Beweddung becomes a "real contract of sale" Howard, I, Essential was one-sided fulfillment through payment of the weotuma or bride-price to the guardian.
Theories of the weotuma. That it was the price of the woman.
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That it was the price of the mund or protection of the woman. Evidence of the Anglo-Saxon laws? Extent of the sale-marriage among the Teutonic peo- ples. Evidence of Tacitus, Germania, chap. Evidence from other German codes. How the amount of the price was fixed. The Real Contract ceases to be a Contract of Sale 6th to 9th centuries.
The arrha instead of the weotuma paid to the guar- dian at the nuptials: Sureties given for payment of the weotuma at the nuptials. The weotuma is in practice often paid to the bride; and so in effect it becomes a provision for the widow. See the evidence of the Anglo-Saxon laws Howard, I, The arrha is merely promised to the guardian.
Sureties to pay the weotuma to the bride. Forms of the solemn act. The morning-gift becomes more important than the weotuma. These two are eventually merged and be- come the dower or dos ad ostium ecclesiae, 5. Being the Second Part of the Marriage Transaction. The Parts of the Nuptial Ceremony.
Procedure at the Gifta. Relative Importance of the Betrothal and the Gifta. Young, in Essays in Anglo-Saxon Law, ff. Antiquities, I, , ; Glasson, Hist, du droit et des inst. The literature is cited in full by Howard, I, ff. Rise of Free Marriage in England and Germany. Self "Betrothal Howard, I, Question as to early existence of free betrothal.
Power of the guardian under sale marriage. Process of change to free betrothal. The woman gains the right of veto. Next conditions are reversed and the guardian mere- ly has the veto power, self-betrothal being the right of the woman. Position of the widow. The right of appeal to her family. Forms of self -betrothal. The wed with the handschlag. Origin of the kiss at betrothal. Other forms of the arrha in England. The wed and the arrha are eventually confused and have the same meaning. Self-Gifta Howard, I, ; the only form after ca. Rise of the ''chosen" guardian. Rise of the ''orator" or "Fursprecher," an assistant to the natural guardian.
Historical connection between the chosen guardian and the priest as officiator at the nuptials. Theories of Sohm and Friedberg. How the orator and the chosen guardian were merged. Gradual omission of the solemn symbols. The chosen guardian gives the bride to the bridegroom and the bridegroom to the bride; significance? After about A. The Primitive and Mediaeval Marriage, already Discussed, is not a true "civil" marriage, but a "lay" and private con- tract.
Consult the works of Sohm, Friedberg, Lehmann, Weinhold, Habicht, Pollock and Maitland, and other literature cited in Section IX above; also Howard I, , where the additional sources and secondary au- thorities are exhibited in detail. The primitive Christian benediction, a. Before the German invasion the Roman law and custom were accepted or the Jewish, according to Freisen. After the invasion ca. But from the earliest period, as a religious duty, the Christians required a priestly benediction.
The bride-mass 4th to 10th century. Celebrated in church after the nuptials. Not essential to a valid marriage ; not originally al- lowed in case of a second marriage. Contrary theory of Dieckhoff? Evidence of the early English rituals Howard, I, Celebration at the church door— acZ ostium ecclesiae 10th to 12th century. General proofs Howard, I, Proofs from the rituals Howard, I, From about the beginning of the 13th century, on the continent, the priest ''joins the persons in wedlock" ; but these words of power are- not in English rituals before the Reformation.
The church legislates to enforce the religious ritual, thus creating the vicious distinction between legality and validity Howard, I, Rise of valid clandestine marriages.
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Decree of the Council of Trent. The Case of the Queen v. Millis, 10 Clark and Finnelly, ; and Beamish v. Beamish, 9 House of Lords Cases, Criticism by Pollock First Book of Jurisprudence, In general, see How- ard, I, , and the literature there cited. The Canon Law Doctrine of Marriage.
Doctrine of the Sacramental Nature of Marriage. The dogma set forth by Lombard, Two consequences of the dogma. Exclusive jurisdiction of the church in matrimonial causes. The canonical theory favors the formation of mar- riages. Mediaeval doctrine of nuptials, following German custom. Doctrine of Hincmar and Gratian before Doctrine of Peter Lombard before The church upholds the validity of secret or clan- destine marriages de praesenti; fixed ceremony, parental consent, record, and witnesses not essen- tial.
The evil effects of the canon law distinction be- tween "legality" and "validity. Effect of verbal distinctions: Uncertainty of marriages according to the canonical theory: Wide prevalence of clandestine marriages: Evils of the Spiritual Jurisdiction Howard, I, Anomalous state of English matrimonial judicature shown by the case of Richard de Anesty, Pol- lock and Maitland, I, ; Palgrave, Commonwealth, pp.
Doctrine of impediments to marriage Pollock and Maitland, II, ff. Forbidden degrees of kinship and affinity; the rule before and after Innocent IIPs decree, Anomalous relation of the temporal and the spiritual courts in England Pollock and Maitland, II, if. Effects on property rights. Origin of Banns and Registration. History of the requirement of banns. Origin of parish registers in England, or earlier.
The Canon Law Doctrine of Divorce. Evolution of the Christian Teachings. Historical elements Howard, I, Views of the early Fathers Howard, I, Legislation of the Christian emperors Howard, I, The compromise with German custom Howard, I, Separation from bed and board divortium a mensa et thoro ; causes allowed: Spiritual adultery fornicatio spiritualis: Complete divorce a vinculo in theory not allowed. Third practical, but not so-called, exception: Why this became in reality a means of absolute divorce?
Action of the Council of Trent. Howard, Matrimonial Institutions, II, , especially , with the literature there cited; particularly Geffcken, Ehescheidung vor Gratian; the Decretum of Gratian in Richter-Friedberg, Corpus juris canonici; the collections of Thorpe, Schmid, Liebermann, Johnson, Haddan and Stubbs; and the various works relating to the Penitentials.
On the History of Divorce, compare Lichtenberger, Divorce: A Study in Social Causation, Woolsey, Divorce and Divorce Legislation, is helpful. The Protestant Conception of Marriage. As to the Form of Marriage. Luther rejects the canonical distinction between sponsalia de praesenti vel futuro, 1 He retains sponsalia de futuro in the sense of ''conditional betrothals. In effects clandestine marriages were sanctioned by Luther Howard, I, The action to enforce a promise of marriage: Stiel, Howard, I, , n. General results of Luther's teachings. The new Protestant marriage ritual or ceremony.
In England Howard, I, The canon law regarding marriage remained in full force. Character of the old English ceremony of public betrothal Howard, I, , notes. Valid betrothals by signs as well as words; Swinburne on marriage ring Howard, I, As to the Nature of Marriage. Influence of Luther Howard, I, Doctrine of the marriage-sacrament abandoned; Luther's confusion of thought regarding the sacra- mental nature of wedlock.
How may his confusion of thought be accounted for? As in Germany the law and judicature of the church were made to rest on the sanction of the state. Technically the dogma of the sacrament was rejec- ted ; but the English Reformers were less bold than the German.
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Howard, Matrimonial Institutions, I, chap, ix, , and the litera- ture there cited. In particular, consult Luther, Tischreden; Strampff, Dr. Ueber die Ehe, containing a collection of Luther s dis- cussions of marriage and divorce gathered from his many writings; Richter's Lehrbuch; and his collection of Kirchenordnungen, which is of primary importance.
The works of the Reformation fathers and of other contemporary writers are discussed by Howard, I, Read Dealey's chapter in op. The Protestant Conception of Divorce. In Germany Howard, II, Grounds of absolute divorce allowed by Luther and the more conservative reformers. Grounds allowed by Erasmus, Zwingli, Bullinger, Bucer, and other liberal reformers. Always allowed the innocent party. Divergent views as to the treatment of the guilty party: Rise of divorce courts Howard, II, The original Protestant doctrine of self -divorce. Gradual rise of the modern view of the function of the courts in granting divorce.
In England Howard, II, Hooper and the equal rights of women. Testimony of Bullinger and Smith. Tyndale's definition of de- sertion. The early reformers reject separation from bed and board. The radical doctrines of Bucer. Expresses the prevalent Protestant view. Not adopted as law, but its principles observed in practice, until Doubtful whether the courts dissolved marriages. Evidence of the Northamp- ton case; of the Foljambe case, Other evi- dence, to The Views of Milton. General state of the English law, It was even more rigid than the canon law of the middle ages: The Puritan Revolution produced no divorce law.
Milton's very liberal doctrines as to divorce and wed- lock. The wife is the "equal inferior" of the husband. Void and Voidable Contracts'. Effect of divorce on the widow's dower Pollock and Maitland, II, From Edward III, divorce a vinculi annulment of marriage deprived her of dower. From Edward III, divorce a mensa did not deprive her of dower.
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Earlier than Edward III, divorce a mensa for her misconduct deprived her of dower. The evil effects of the absurd distinction between void and voidable marriages Pollock and Maitland, II, ff. A marriage illegal on account of a diriment im- pediment, if properly solemnized, was not ipso facto void, but only voidable by decree of a church court.
The children of such a union, if in good faith, were legitimate, if born before the decree until James I. The persons separated by such decree might again marry ; but the validity of the first marriage might be established by new evidence ; and then the sec- ond marriage must be decreed void.
After James I, the children were legitimate, if the parents while both were living were never di- vorced ; but, in that case, the surviving consort was liable to punishment for the sin of marrying with- in the forbidden degrees, e. Lord Lyndhurst's Act, Evils resulting from the practice. Injustice to the wife.
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Practically but one ground for divorce admitted. Discrimination in favor of the rich. Harsh rules of evidence in church courts. The Present English law, A civil divorce court created in ; this superseded by another in The three forms of separation allowed by the act of , as supplemented by later acts.
How "cruelty" and "deser- tion" are defined. Judicial separation, equal to the old divorce a mensa. Defects of the act? Of little use since the Married Women's Property Acts of and For the Reformation doctrines as to Divorce, consult Howard, Matri- monial Institutions, II, chap, xi, , , where the primary and secondary authorities on marriage and divorce are cited in full detail.
Richter's KirscheTwrd- nungen, his monograph entitled Beitrdge zur Geschichte des Eheschlies- sungsrechts, and his Kirchenrecht are of greatest value. Read Lichten- berger, Divorce: The history of divorce in England since Milton, is discussed, with de- tailed citation of the literature, by Howard, II, Void and void- able contracts are best treated by Pollock and Maitland, as above cited.
The standard work on parliamentary divorce is Macqueen, Practical Treatise London, Lecky, Democracy and Liberty, II, , has a very interesting dis- cussion of English divorce law in connection with the laws of other nations. The enlightened majority Report of the Royal Commission on Divorce and Matrimonial Causes, submitted in , seems likely to work a re- form in the very unmodern divorce laws of Great Britain.
Rise of Civil Marriage. As to the ceremony; controversy between Cartwright and Whitgift. Powers of the High Commission extended Prothero, Statues, Evidence of the "Millenary Petition," Prothero, The act of directed against the Catholics Proth- ero, Bishop Wren's Orders, The form of marriage contract prescribed by the Di- rectory of Public Worship substituted for the Book of Common Prayer , Banns and certificate of banns from the parish register Howard, I, Ceremony before a justice of the peace.
Proof of parental consent ; examination of witnesses on oath. In practice the religious ceremony was sometimes performed before or after the civil ; and from the religious ceremony alone was legal. The parish register elected for three years. Keeps a record in a book of marriages, births, and burials. Gives a certificate of banns and subscribes the entry of every marriage. Evidence that the records were well kept; error in Graunt's statement Howard, I, Hull's Introduction to Works of Petty , 4.
The marriage certificate Howard, I, Jurisdiction of justices of the peace. In marriage contracts and controversies. Breach of promise Howard, I, Contemporary sentiment as to the Ordinance of The legislation of William III. Graduated tax imposed on marriages. Keeping of registers required. Temporal penalties imposed on secret marriages. The acts of and in effect encouraged the traffic in secret marriages.
Imprisonment for debt within the "rules of liber- ties" of the Fleet. Inducements to contract Fleet marriages. Persons of quality married in the Fleet. Abuses connected with Fleet marriages. Alexander Keith; evidence of Keith's Observations The case of Cochrane alias Kennedy v, Campbell The Hardwicke Act, Its defects in form and substance; intolerance; case of the Unitarians. The act of 4 Geo. Religious marriage within the Church of England. Marriage among the religious sects. Continuity and innovation in New England law and custom: Why was there a tendency to secularize institutions?
Origin of the lay contract. Evidence of Governor Hutchinson Hist, of Mass,, 1, Evidence of Governor Bradford Hist, of Plymouth, In reality the rise of civil marriage was the logical result of the Reformation. The first statutes requiring a civil ceremony.
Celebrated as in Massachusetts. New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. Rise of religious marriage under Andros, First regular church marriage at Boston, May 18 28 , The earlier celebrations by Rev. Gradual establishment of the lay or ecclesiastical cele- bration by statute. Careful regulation of the districts of the justices and ministers. Careful provisions regarding ''settled" and "or- dained" ministers.
No prescribed ritual Gilman, Story of Boston, See the full citation of the sources and the general literature in Howard, II, ff. Local Civil Administration of Matrimonial Law. For minors consent of parent or magistrate required. Peculiar law of Massachusetts regarding notice on lecture day or in town-meeting. Interesting procedure in Rhode Island.
Triple procedure by notice, contract betrothal , and covenant in Connecticut. General influence of the Mosaic law in early New Eng- land; death penalty for disobedience to parents. Legal restraints on bachelors. Character of the regulations. Reasons for the restraints. Evidence that the laws were carried out. Restraints on ''ancient maids. Restraints on married persons living ''apart.
Legal contract of courtship and proposals. Character of the laws. Evidence that the laws were enforced. Bewail provides his daughters with suitors How- ard, II, Pre-contract, contraction, or betrothal. In legal theory and practice the engaged persons were treated as ''half married. Effect on social morals. This effect, how aggravated by the custom of bund- ling? Significance of the church confessions of prenuptial sins.
Pre-contract influenced by the Jewish code. Breach of Marriage and Marriage Portions. Self-gifta, Clandestine Contracts, and Forbidden Degrees. A safe ritual for slave marriages. The analysis follows Howard, II, , where the manuscript and other sources, as well as the secondary writings, are cited in full.
General character of the marriage law; elements of civil law civil administration from Importance of the act of Hening, I, , Relaxation of the monopoly of the clergy of the Church of England. In favor of celebration by clergy of other churches, , In favor of lay celebrants, , Howard, II, , But during the colonial period in Virginia, dissent- ers actually married according to their own rites O'Callaghan, Doc. Marriages of indented servants. Marriages by banns or license with bond, , , , Optional civil or religious marriage, for all, until , when some restriction was laid on civil marriages of members of established church Archives of Md.
Civil marriages of members of established church re- stricted, , Civil marriage entirely abrogated, for all persons, nil. General composition of the population; provisions of the "Fundamental Constitutions," Full toleration as to form of marriage civil or re- ligious , First legislation by the ''Assembly of Albemarle," Quaker marriages tolerated during the entire colon- ial era; their simple rites Howard, II, ; N. C, Col Rec, I, Civil marriages are abrogated and the fees for cele- bration become the monopoly of the established clergy, , but where no minister or priest re- sides, magistrates may perform the ceremony.
Li- cense fees were the governor's perquisite. Substance of the Act of The Act of Motives for its passage: Either parents or grandparents are tasked with giving the child a decorated cone filled with candy, toys and school supplies. Originally the cone would be brought to the school and it would be hung up on a cone tree marked with their name.
Kids would be told a story that at school a tree is growing with cones and when it is ripe, the kids are old enough and need to go to school. This is supposed to make the first day of school, which can often be a stressful time for a child, a little more fun. Stealing the bride is a very old Austrian tradition when it comes to weddings. The tradition is seen as both entertaining but also has the symbolic meaning that the bride is leaving her family home and starting a whole new portion of her life with her husband.
Friends of the bride and groom interrupt the wedding by crashing the party to kidnap or steal the bride. For a certain amount of time no one at the wedding should notice that the bride has gone missing, so the kidnappings are elaborately planned out. The kidnappers then take the bride and go from bar to bar in the local area, buying drinks along the way. Then the groom has to go find the bride. Once the groom finds his bride, he needs to pay a ransom to get her back; this usually involves him buying a round of drinks.
This is a very common New Years tradition in Austria and if you are in Austria during this time you will see stands selling the equipment needed for it everywhere next to stalls filled with tiny pigs in various forms. Pieces of tin are sold along with a metal spoon. On New Year's Day, each member of the family melts their piece of tin using a stove or lighter and then once it is melted pours it into a tub of cold water.
The resulting shape of the tin is then interpreted as an omen for the future, especially the upcoming year. A huge part of the fun is doing this with your family and spending the whole time arguing about what shape the melted tin has become and what it could possibly mean for the upcoming year. This Austrian custom is common in the Alpine regions around December or the beginning of January. The costumes are usually very frightening or at least very ugly. In recent years, however the two processions and traditions have largely combined into one main event and are usually major tourist attractions.
Iceland may have a population of just over , people all with equally unpronounceable names but that doesn't stop it churning out a stream of globally-renowned people. Take our quiz to discover your Icelandic spirit animal. Search Austria's news in English. News categories Politics Technology Lifestyle More…. Jobs in Austria Browse jobs Post a vacancy. Email newsletters Newsletter sign-up Edit my subscriptions. Other pages Apartment rentals Noticeboard. Six unique traditions that Austrians love to love The Local.
A recent study about Austrians confirmed what many already know: