The more you are able to fine-tune your writing in these areas, the more meaningful and straightforward your communication will be. I expect that this lesson will be a challenge for many students. It was a challenge for me to ensure that I was providing correct examples and feedback on all exercises. However, some of you may experience more difficulty than others with basic written language skills.
You may need to engage in further skill development before you can be successful in graduate school. Please search out the resources at your home university. If you are an AU student, take advantage of the resources provided through our Write Site. Now is a good time to step back again from this detailed revision of your words, your sentences, and your individual paragraphs to reread your paper, looking again for overall flow and ease of understanding.
Make sure that your thesis and arguments remain clear. You may want to use the checklist below to wrap up this part of your revision process. I have drawn some of these ideas from Fowler et al. How do I effectively communicate my ideas? Skip to content Increase Font Size. Most familiar to least familiar: Exercise 1 Complete Exercise 1 to test your understanding of when to use transitional words to enhance meaningfulness in your paper.
Exercise 2 As a test of your understanding of these concepts, complete Exercise 2. If you have taken an interpersonal communications skills course, you have likely been introduced to a number of verbal skills that are designed to help you effectively and purposefully communicate your ideas and facilitate dialogue with others. A number of these same skills are very useful for creating a clear and logical flow of ideas in your written work. Exercise 3 Complete Exercise 3 to apply these concepts to a sample text. The sandwich technique Think of each paragraph as a sandwich!
Collins argued that writing skills have a dramatic effect on success in graduate education. Exercise 4 Complete Exercise 4 to make sure you have a good understanding of how to structure a complete sentence and to ensure you have the vocabulary necessary to follow other guidelines for effective writing. Welcoming them, zim, em, hir. If you are unfamiliar with gender identity issues and the implications for language use, have a look at the following resources: Exercise 5 Complete Exercise 5 to test your understanding of how to properly structure your sentences.
Exercise 6 Complete Exercise 6 to test your understanding of subordinate elements and parallel construction, then check your responses with Exercise 6 Answers. Review the links below for helpful advice on avoiding contractions: Exercise 7 Complete Exercise 7 to test your understanding of these principles.
Tech Tip Be sure that Microsoft Word has not been set to automatically hyphenate words at the end of sentences. Exercise 8 Complete Exercise 8 to test your understanding of punctuation, and then compare your responses to Exercise 8 Feedback. Exercise 9 Complete Exercise 9 to test your understanding of these principles related to capitalization, abbreviations, italics, and numbers. An overview is a short statement at the beginning of a section or at a transition point within a paper that outlines the key points that are to follow. This helps the reader to understand the structure of the paper and develop realistic expectations as to what the paper will accomplish.
This section describes the conceptualization of human nature from a humanistic perspective. Summaries include a statement or statements that review or pull together the essence of several paragraphs or sections of a paper. In many cases, you will find it useful to combine these structuring skills.
The study explored the differences in worldview between rural and urban teachers. Significant differences existed between those individuals who…. Withrow noted that female participants tended to respond more frequently than male participants. Refers to an event, action, or circumstance that did not occur at a specific time the past or that started in the past and continues into the present. Several studies have indicated a link between self-esteem and early childhood social supports. Each group responded to the questionnaire within the timeframe provided.
This study shows evidence of a connection between worldview and preferred intervention strategy. George , the cat , lives in Alberta. He moves slowly action. Describe or modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or groups of words where, when, how, etc. Three baby spiders crawl along behind the plump spider. George wiggles and squirms, but he can not get his paws to move coordinating. Neither his front paws nor his back paws budge. Subordinating conjunctions link less important elements to the main element.
George is very surprised because he is usually not this slow! Cats that suffer from such paralysis are rare acts as an adjective. George is brave i n every other situation acts as an adverb. The animals play well together. The cat plays well by himself. There are three dogs playing. The ethics of each member is what binds them together. The data are consistent with other findings. The cat and dog play well together.
Neither the dog nor the cats are happy. Neither the cats nor the dog is happy. Ignore phrases that add additional information including, in addition to… or qualify the subject who, which…. The evidence of the crime together with the lack of alibi points to their guilt. The response from all participants was similar. The subject , which is singular, determines the verb format. Collective nouns family, group, pair… are treated as singular if the verb refers to the individuals and plural if the verb refers to the group or collective. The family head off in different directions.
The couple is welcomed warmly. The group does not want to participate. The collection of items are sorted into piles. Any person is welcome. The word none can be either singular or plural depending on the word that follows. None of the events are open. None of the news is good.
The participants exhibited distress when they were exposed to the stimulus. It was unclear whether the other woman or I was the first to hold up my hand. Each of the girls believes that she is the first to arrive. The scoring card was prepared in advance, and it was available to each observer. The horse that we had planned to ride was missing. There are three people here who look like the suspect. The results of the test are not useful because of their lowering of the mean. Place the modifier as close as possible to the word you want it to refer to [to avoid a misplaced modifier].
Without looking at the test results , the teacher instructed the students to complete the next section. The teacher instructed the students to complete the next section, without looking at the test results. The results of this study, in keeping with current research , link stress to lower self-esteem. After traveling for several weeks , I finally saw the ocean come into view. The group that was given the placebo performed equally well. Use which for non-restrictive clauses not essential to the meaning and enclose the clause in commas. The group , which met in the foyer, formed a solid bond over the day.
I tried to complete the exercises while I was writing my paper. Use although, whereas, but, or and to imply comparison rather than while. I tried to complete the exercises, although I was busy writing my paper. Since finishing my paper , I have tried to complete the exercises. I was unable to complete the exercises because I was writing my paper. I struggle with composing papers and I hate editing my own work. The outcomes were evidence that self-awareness is critical for short-term learning and that action is required for long-term change. I struggle with composing papers and hate to edit my own work.
The outcomes were evidence that self-awareness is critical for short-term learning and action for long-term change. There were people all over the park, bicycling, walking, and engaging in conversation. There were people all over the park, bicycling, walking, and engaged in conversation. Three of the people were wearing jeans, and another person was sporting a suit.
Three of the people were wearing jeans, and there was another person in a suit.
The Grammar of English Grammars/Part II
With pairs of coordinating conjunctions, place the first one close to the components it refers to. The experienced groups focused both on the task and the timelines. The experienced groups focused either on the task or on the timelines. The experienced groups both focused on the task and the timelines.
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High school principals emphasized that there are three core principles for school nursing programs. The principle reason for focusing on nursing was…. It was difficult for her to accept that all she could do was to listen, except under very specific circumstances. There will be an enquiry into the conduct of the team, and I have received an inquiry about my participation.
She complimented me on my fairness when I divided the supplies and handed over her complement of them. The program council asked her to attend a meeting to counsel them about the upcoming decision. There were several discrete options before them; the challenge was selecting one that would enable them to be as discreet as possible about their role.
While she ran in to buy some stationery , he waited outside in the cold in the stationary car. He spent a few hours trying to elicit enough information to know where to find the illicit drugs. Other instructors have already set several precedents , but precedence is given to the one that best simplifies the process.
His sleight of hand did not go unnoticed, although she gave only a slight turn of her head. The lead investigator led the raters through the assessment guidelines. It is important to prioritize your learning goals so that you see clear progress. Commas, periods, and dashes are different types of punctuation. Different types of punctuation, even your use of periods, affect the pacing of your writing. Sentences, that run on too long, require additional punctuation. Students often misplace commas, or they fail to insert them at all.
Most errors are a result of failing to proofread, or falling into old habits. An independent clause can function as a complete sentence; a dependent clause cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. Some clauses cannot stand alone; without a subject and verb, for example. Clear punctuation provides structure, clarity, and cadence; directs the reader about when to pause; and indicates what information is essential or non-essential to the meaning.
Unclear punctuation can confuse; leave the reader out of breath; and blur the meaning of sentences. The following instruction will exceed 40 words so requires block format: Many words commonly belonging to other parts of speech are occasionally used as nouns; and, since it is the manner of its use, that determines any word to be of one part of speech rather than of an other, whatever word is used directly as a noun, must of course be parsed as such.
Song , vii, Interjections or phrases made nouns: Nouns are divided into two general classes; proper and common. A proper noun is the name of some particular individual, or people, or group; as, Adam, Boston , the Hudson , the Romans , the Azores , the Alps. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things; as, Beast, bird, fish, insect,--creatures, persons, children. The particular classes, collective, abstract , and verbal , or participial , are usually included among common nouns. The name of a thing sui generis is also called common.
A collective noun , or noun of multitude , is the name of many individuals together; as, Council, meeting, committee, flock. An abstract noun is the name of some particular quality considered apart from its substance; as, Goodness, hardness, pride, frailty. A verbal or participial noun is the name of some action, or state of being; and is formed from a verb, like a participle, but employed as a noun: A thing sui generis , i. Nouns have modifications of four kinds; namely, Persons, Numbers, Genders , and Cases. Persons, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish the speaker, the hearer, and the person or thing merely spoken of.
The first person is that which denotes the speaker or writer; as, " I Paul have written it. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed; as, " Robert , who did this? The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of; as, " James loves his book.
The speaker or writer, being the mover and maker of the communication, of course stands in the nearest or first of these relations. The hearer or hearers, being personally present and directly addressed, evidently sustain the next or second of these relations; this relation is also that of the reader, when he peruses what is addressed to himself in print or writing.
Lastly, whatsoever or whosoever is merely mentioned in the discourse, bears to it that more remote relation which constitutes the third person. The distinction of persons belongs to nouns, pronouns, and finite verbs; and to these it is always applied, either by peculiarity of form or construction, or by inference from the principles of concord. Pronouns are like their antecedents, and verbs are like their subjects, in person. Hence, it is necessary that our definitions of these things be such as will apply to each of them in full, or under all circumstances; for the definitions ought to be as general in their application as are the things or properties defined.
Any person, number, gender, case, or other grammatical modification, is really but one and the same thing, in whatever part of speech it may be found. This is plainly implied in the very nature of every form of syntactical agreement; and as plainly contradicted in one half, and probably more, of the definitions usually given of these things.
But persons, in common parlance, or in ordinary life, are intelligent beings , of one or the other sex. These objects, different as they are in their nature, are continually confounded by the makers of English grammars: So Bicknell, of London: The second person has the speech directed to him , and is supposed to be present; as, Thou Harry art a wicked fellow. The third person is spoken of, or described, and supposed to be absent ; as, That Thomas is a good man.
And in the same manner the plural pronouns are used, when more than one are spoken of. And how can the first person be "the person WHO speaks ," when every word of this phrase is of the third person? Most certainly, it is not HE, nor any one of his sort. If any body can boast of being " the first person in grammar ," I pray, Who is it? Is it not I , even I? Many grammarians say so. Charles Adams, with infinite absurdity, makes the three persons in grammar to be never any thing but three nouns , which hold a confabulation thus: The noun that speaks [,] is the first person; as, I, James , was present.
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The noun that is spoken to, is the second person; as, James , were you present? The noun that is spoken of is the third person; as, James was present. What can be a greater blunder, than to call the first person of a verb, of a pronoun, or even of a noun, " the noun that speaks? Nouns are of the second person when addressed or spoken to. Thou is the second person, singular. He, she , or it , is the third person, singular. We is the first person, plural. Ye or you is the second person, plural. They is the third person, plural. Murray's Grammar , p.
Adams's , 37; A. Flint's , 18; Kirkham's , 98; Cooper's , 34; T. Now there is no more propriety in affirming, that " I is the first person ," than in declaring that me, we, us, am, ourselves, we think, I write , or any other word or phrase of the first person, is the first person. Yet Murray has given us no other definitions or explanations of the persons than the foregoing erroneous assertions; and, if I mistake not, all the rest who are here named, have been content to define them only as he did. Some others, however, have done still worse: I, who is the person speaking ; 2d thou, who is spoken to; 3d he, she , or it, who is spoken of, and their plurals, we, ye or you, they.
Here the two kinds of error which I have just pointed out, are jumbled together. It is impossible to write worse English than this! Nor is the following much better: I , in the first person, speaking; Thou , in the second person, spoken to; and He, she, it , in the third person, spoken of. This exception takes place more particularly in the writing of dialogues and dramas; in which the first and second persons are abundantly used, not as the representatives of the author and his reader, but as denoting the fictitious speakers and hearers that figure in each scene.
But, in discourse, the grammatical persons may be changed without a change of the living subject. In the following sentence, the three grammatical persons are all of them used with reference to one and the same individual: Consequently, nouns are rarely used in the first person; and when they do assume this relation, a pronoun is commonly associated with them: But some grammarians deny the first person to nouns altogether; others, with much more consistency, ascribe it;[] while very many are entirely silent on the subject.
Yet it is plain that both the doctrine of concords, and the analogy of general grammar, require its admission. The reason of this may be seen in the following examples: Again, if the word God is of the second person, in the text, " Thou, God , seest me," why should any one deny that Paul is of the first person, in this one? And so of the plural: How can it be pretended, that, in the phrase, " I Paul ," I is of the first person, as denoting the speaker, and Paul , of some other person, as denoting something or somebody that is not the speaker? Let the admirers of Murray, Kirkham, Ingersoll, R.
Smith, Comly, Greenleaf, Parkhurst, or of any others who teach this absurdity, answer. In the following example, the patriarch Jacob uses both forms; applying the term servant to himself, and to his brother Esau the term lord: For when a speaker or writer does not choose to declare himself in the first person, or to address his hearer or reader in the second , he speaks of both or either in the third.
So Judah humbly beseeches Joseph: And Abraham reverently intercedes with God: And the Psalmist prays: So, on more common occasions: Ye mountains , that ye skipped like rams; and ye little hills , like lambs? Tremble, thou earth , at the presence of the Lord, at the presence of the God of Jacob. The plural number is that which denotes more than one; as, "The boys learn.
The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding s or es to the singular: When the singular ends in a sound which will unite with that of s , the plural is generally formed by adding s only , and the number of syllables is not increased: But when the sound of s cannot be united with that of the primitive word, the regular plural adds s to final e , and es to other terminations, and forms a separate syllable: In some languages, as the Greek and the Arabic, there is a dual number, which denotes two , or a pair ; but in ours, this property of words, or class of modifications, extends no farther than to distinguish unity from plurality, and plurality from unity.
It belongs to nouns, pronouns, and finite verbs; and to these it is always applied, either by peculiarity of form, or by inference from the principles of concord. Pronouns are like their antecedents, and verbs are like their subjects, in number. The terminations which always make the regular plural in es , with increase of syllables, are twelve; namely, ce, ge, ch soft, che soft, sh, ss, s, se, x, xe, z , and ze: All other endings readily unite in sound either with the sharp or with the flat s , as they themselves are sharp or flat; and, to avoid an increase of syllables, we allow the final e mute to remain mute after that letter is added: In some instances, however, usage is various in writing, though uniform in speech; an unsettlement peculiar to certain words that terminate in vowels: There are also some other difficulties respecting the plurals of nouns, and especially respecting those of foreign words; of compound terms; of names and titles; and of words redundant or deficient in regard to the numbers.
What is most worthy of notice, respecting all these puzzling points of English grammar, is briefly contained in the following observations. To this rule, the plurals of words ending in quy , as alloquies, colloquies, obloquies, soliloquies , are commonly made exceptions; because many have conceived that the u , in such instances, is a mere appendage to the q , or is a consonant having the power of w , and not a vowel forming a diphthong with the y. See Rule 12th for Spelling. So nouns in i , so far as we have any that are susceptible of a change of number, form the plural regularly by assuming es: Common nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, are numerous; and none of them deviate from the foregoing rule of forming the plural: The termination added is es , and the y is changed into i , according to the general principle expressed in Rule 11th for Spelling.
But, to this principle, or rule, some writers have supposed that proper nouns were to be accounted exceptions. And accordingly we sometimes find such names made plural by the mere addition of an s ; as, "How come the Pythagoras' , [it should be, the Pythagorases ,] the Aristotles , the Tullys , the Livys , to appear, even to us at this distance, as stars of the first magnitude in the vast fields of ether? This doctrine, adopted from some of our older grammars, I was myself, at one period, inclined to countenance; see Institutes of English Grammar , p.
To pronounce the final a flat, as Africay for Africa , is a mark of vulgar ignorance. This class of words being anomalous in respect to pronunciation, some authors have attempted to reform them, by changing the e to y in the singular, and writing ies for the plural: A reformation of some sort seems desirable here, and this has the advantage of being first proposed; but it is not extensively adopted, and perhaps never will be; for the vowel sound in question, is not exactly that of the terminations y and ies , but one which seems to require ee --a stronger sound than that of y , though similar to it.
In words of this class, the e appears to be useful as a means of preserving the right sound of the o ; consequently, such of them as are the most frequently used, have become the most firmly fixed in this orthography. In practice, however, we find many similar nouns very frequently, if not uniformly, written with s only; as, cantos, juntos, grottos, solos, quartos, octavos, duodecimos, tyros.
So that even the best scholars seem to have frequently doubted which termination they ought to regard as the regular one. The whole class includes more than one hundred words. Some, however, are seldom used in the plural; and others, never. Wo and potato are sometimes written woe and potatoe. This may have sprung from a notion, that such as have the e in the plural, should have it also in the singular. But this principle has never been carried out; and, being repugnant to derivation, it probably never will be.
The only English appellatives that are established in oe , are the following fourteen: The last is pronounced dip'-lo-e by Worcester; but Webster, Bolles, and some others, give it as a word of two syllables only. Nay, for lack of a rule to guide his pen, even Johnson himself could not remember the orthography of the common word mangoes well enough to copy it twice without inconsistency. This may be seen by his example from King, under the words mango and potargo. Since, therefore, either termination is preferable to the uncertainty which must attend a division of this class of words between the two; and since es has some claim to the preference, as being a better index to the sound; I shall make no exceptions to the principle, that common nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant take es for the plural.
Murray says, " Nouns which end in o have sometimes es added, to form the plural; as, cargo, echo, hero, negro, manifesto, potato, volcano, wo: This amounts to nothing, unless it is to be inferred from his examples , that others like them in form are to take s or es accordingly; and this is what I teach, though it cannot be said that Murray maintains the principle.
These, however, may still be called proper nouns , in parsing; because they are only inflections, peculiarly applied, of certain names which are indisputably such. So likewise when such nouns are used to denote character: The proper names of nations, tribes , and societies , are generally plural; and, except in a direct address, they are usually construed with the definite article: And those which are only or chiefly plural, have, or ought to have, such terminations as are proper to distinguish them as plurals, so that the form for the singular may be inferred: Here the singular must certainly be a Tungoose.
Here the singulars may be supposed to be a Pawnee , an Arrapaho , and a Cumanche. Here all are regular plurals, except the last; and this probably ought to be Natchezes , but Jefferson spells it Natches , the singular of which I do not know. Sometimes foreign words or foreign terminations have been improperly preferred to our own; which last are more intelligible, and therefore better: As any vowel sound may be uttered with an s , many writers suppose these letters to require for plurals strictly regular, the s only; and to take es occasionally, by way of exception.
Others, perhaps with more reason, assume, that the most usual, regular, and proper endings for the plural, in these instances, are ies, oes, and ues: This, I think, is right for common nouns. How far proper names are to be made exceptions, because they are proper names, is an other question. It is certain that some of them are not to be excepted: So the names of tribes; as, The Missouries , the Otoes , the Winnebagoes. Likewise, the houries and the harpies ; which words, though not strictly proper names, are often written with a capital as such.
Like these are rabbies, cadies, mufties, sophies , from which some writers omit the e. Johnson, Walker, and others, write gipsy and gipsies ; Webster, now writes Gipsey and Gipseys ; Worcester prefers Gypsy , and probably Gypsies: Webster once wrote the plural gypsies ; see his Essays , p. Yet there seems to be the same reason for inserting the e in these, as in other nouns of the same ending; namely, to prevent the o from acquiring a short sound. Harris says very properly, 'We have our Marks and our Antonies: Whatever may have been the motive for it, such a use of the apostrophe is a gross impropriety.
The word India , commonly makes the plural Indies , not Indias ; and, for Ajaxes , the poets write Ajaces. For example--in speaking of two young ladies whose family name is Bell--whether to call them the Miss Bells , the Misses Bell , or the Misses Bells. To an inquiry on this point, a learned editor, who prefers the last, lately gave his answer thus: This puts the words in apposition; and there is no question, that it is formally correct. But still it is less agreeable to the ear, less frequently heard, and less approved by grammarians, than the first phrase; which, if we may be allowed to assume that the two words may be taken together as a sort of compound, is correct also.
The following quotations show the opinions of some other grammarians: The foregoing opinion from Crombie, is quoted and seconded by Maunder, who adds the following examples: Stone, the editor above quoted, nor would his reasoning apply well to several of their examples. Yet both opinions are right, if neither be carried too far. For when the words are in apposition, rather than in composition, the first name or title must be made plural, if it refers to more than one: Nor is that which varies the first only, to be altogether condemned, though Dr.
Priestley is unquestionably wrong respecting the " strict analogy " of which he speaks. The joining of a plural title to one singular noun, as, " Misses Roy ,"--" The Misses Bell ,"--" The two Misses Thomson ," produces a phrase which is in itself the least analogous of the three; but, " The Misses Jane and Eliza Bell ," is a phrase which nobody perhaps will undertake to amend.
It appears, then, that each of these forms of expression may be right in some cases; and each of them may be wrong, if improperly substituted for either of the others. Sells; the two Miss Browns ; or, without the numeral, the Miss Roys. But in addressing letters in which both or all are equally concerned, and also when the names are different, we pluralize the title , Mr. If we wish to distinguish these Misses from other Misses, we call them the Misses Howard.
The elliptical meaning is, the Misses and Messrs, who are named Story.
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To distinguish unmarried from married ladies, the proper name , and not the title , should be varied; as, the Miss Clarks. When we mention more than one person of different names, the title should be expressed before each; as, Miss Burns, Miss Parker, and Miss Hopkinson, were present. In the following examples from Pope's Works, the last word only is varied: Three others in fe are similar: These are specific exceptions to the general rule for plurals, and not a series of examples coming under a particular rule; for, contrary to the instructions of nearly all our grammarians, there are more than twice as many words of the same endings, which take s only: The plural of wharf is sometimes written wharves ; but perhaps as frequently, and, if so, more accurately, wharfs.
Nouns in ff take s only; as, skiffs, stuffs, gaffs. But the plural of staff has hitherto been generally written staves ; a puzzling and useless anomaly, both in form and sound: Staffs is now sometimes used; as, "I saw the husbandmen bending over their staffs. In one instance, I observe, a very excellent scholar has written selfs for selves , but the latter is the established plural of self:. The word brethren is now applied only to fellow-members of the same church or fraternity; for sons of the same parents we always use brothers ; and this form is sometimes employed in the other sense.
Dice are spotted cubes for gaming; dies are stamps for coining money, or for impressing metals. Pence , as six pence , refers to the amount of money in value; pennies denotes the corns themselves. This last anomaly, I think, might well enough "be spared; the sound of the word being the same, and the distinction to the eye not always regarded.
In this way, these irregularities extend to many words; though some of the metaphorical class, as kite's-foot, colts-foot, bear's-foot, lion's-foot , being names of plants, have no plural. The word man , which is used the most frequently in this way, makes more than seventy such compounds. But there are some words of this ending, which, not being compounds of man , are regular: Thus we write fathers-in-law, sons-in-law, knights-errant, courts-martial, cousins-german, hangers-on, comings-in, goings-out, goings-forth , varying the first; and manhaters, manstealers, manslayers, maneaters, mandrills, handfuls, spoonfuls, mouthfuls, pailfuls, outpourings, ingatherings, downsittings, overflowings , varying the last.
The Grammar of English Grammars/Part II - Wikisource, the free online library
So, in many instances, when there is a less intimate connexion of the parts, and the words are written with a hyphen, if not separately, we choose to vary the latter or last: The following mode of writing is irregular in two respects; first, because the words are separated, and secondly, because both are varied: Liberator , ix, According to analogy, it ought to be: Wright alleges, that, "The phrase, 'I want two spoonfuls or handfuls ,' though common, is improperly constructed;" and that, "we should say, 'Two spoons or hands full. From this opinion, I dissent: Of the propriety of this, the reader may judge, when I shall have quoted a few examples: Such terms as these, if thought objectionable, may easily be avoided, by substituting for the former part of the compound the separate adjective male or female ; as, male child, male children.
Or, for those of the third example, one might say, " singing men and singing women ," as in Nehemiah , vii, 67; for, in the ancient languages, the words are the same. Alger compounds " singing-men and singing-women. But, in all such cases, I think the hyphen should be inserted in the compound, though it is the practice of many to omit it.
Of this odd sort of words, I quote the following examples from Churchill; taking the liberty to insert the hyphen, which he omits: For, as there ought to be no word, or inflection of a word, for which we cannot conceive an appropriate meaning or use, it follows that whatever is of such a species that it cannot be taken in any plural sense, must naturally be named by a word which is singular only: But there are some things, which have in fact neither a comprehensible unity, nor any distinguishable plurality, and which may therefore be spoken of in either number; for the distinction of unity and plurality is, in such instances, merely verbal; and, whichever number we take, the word will be apt to want the other: It is necessary that every noun should be understood to be of one number or the other; for, in connecting it with a verb, or in supplying its place by a pronoun, we must assume it to be either singular or plural.
And it is desirable that singulars and plurals should always abide by their appropriate forms, so that they may be thereby distinguished with readiness. But custom, which regulates this, as every thing else of the like nature, does not always adjust it well; or, at least, not always upon principles uniform in themselves and obvious to every intellect.
Thus, a council , a committee , a jury , a meeting , a society , a flock , or a herd , is singular; and the regular plurals are councils, committees, juries, meetings, societies, flocks, herds. But these, and many similar words, may be taken plurally without the s , because a collective noun is the name of many individuals together. Hence we may say, "The council were unanimous.
Where a purer concord can be effected, it may be well to avoid such a construction, though examples like it are not uncommon: Thus, cattle , for beasts of pasture, and pulse , for peas and beans, though in appearance singulars only, are generally, if not always, plural; and summons, gallows, chintz, series, superficies, molasses, suds, hunks, jakes, trapes , and corps , with the appearance of plurals, are generally, if not always, singular.
Webster says that cattle is of both numbers; but wherein the oneness of cattle can consist, I know not. The Bible says, "God made-- cattle after their kind. Here kind is indeed singular, as if cattle were a natural genus of which one must be a cattle ; as sheep are a natural genus of which one is a sheep: Gillies says, in his History of Greece, " cattle was regarded as the most convenient measure of value.
Sheep is not singular, unless limited to that number by some definitive word; and cattle I conceive to be incapable of any such limitation. Summonses is given in Cobb's Dictionary as the plural of summons ; but some authors have used the latter with a plural verb: Johnson says this noun is from the verb to summon ; and, if this is its origin, the singular ought to be a summon , and then summons would be a regular plural.
But this "singular noun with a plural termination," as Webster describes it, more probably originated from the Latin verb submoneas , used in the writ, and came to us through the jargon of law, in which we sometimes hear men talk of " summonsing witnesses. Chints is called by Cobb a "substantive plural " and defined as "cotton cloths , made in India;" but other lexicographers define it as singular, and Worcester perhaps more properly writes it chintz. Johnson cites Pope as speaking of " a charming chints ," and I have somewhere seen the plural formed by adding es.
Walker, in his Elements of Elocution, makes frequent use of the word " serieses ," and of the phrase " series of serieses. This, however, is no rule for writing English. Blair has used the word species in a plural sense; though I think he ought rather to have preferred the regular English word kinds: Specie , meaning hard money, though derived or corrupted from species , is not the singular of that word; nor has it any occasion for a plural form, because we never speak of a specie.
The plural of gallows , according to Dr. Webster, is gallowses ; nor is that form without other authority, though some say, gallows is of both numbers and not to be varied: Some nouns, because they signify such things as nature or art has made plural or double; some, because they have been formed from other parts of speech by means of the plural ending which belongs to nouns; and some, because they are compounds in which a plural word is principal, and put last, are commonly used in the plural number only, and have, in strict propriety, no singular.
Though these three classes of plurals may not be perfectly separable, I shall endeavour to exhibit them in the order of this explanation. Plurals in meaning and form: Plurals by formation, derived chiefly from adjectives: To these may be added the Latin words, aborigines, antipodes, antes, antoeci, amphiscii, anthropophagi, antiscii, ascii, literati, fauces, regalia , and credenda , with the Italian vermicelli , and the French belles-lettres and entremets. Of this class are the following: The fact is, that these words have, or ought to have, the singular, as often as there is any occasion to use it; and the same may, in general terms, be said of other nouns, respecting the formation of the plural.
But the nature of a mass, or of an indefinite multitude taken collectively, is not found in individuals as such; nor is the name, whether singular, as gold , or plural, as ashes , so understood. Hence, though every noun must be of one number or the other, there are many which have little or no need of both. Thus we commonly speak of wheat, barley, or oats , collectively; and very seldom find occasion for any other forms of these words.
But chafferers at the corn-market, in spite of Cobbett,[] will talk about wheats and barleys , meaning different kinds[] or qualities; and a gardener, if he pleases, will tell of an oat , as does Milton, in his Lycidas, meaning a single seed or plant. But, because wheat or barley generally means that sort of grain in mass, if he will mention a single kernel, he must call it a grain of wheat or a barleycorn. And these he may readily make plural, to specify any particular number; as, five grains of wheat , or three barleycorns. The word amends is represented by Murray and others, as being singular as well as plural; but Webster's late dictionaries exhibit amend as singular, and amends as plural, with definitions that needlessly differ, though not much.
I judge " an amends " to be bad English; and prefer the regular singular, an amend. The word is of French origin, and is sometimes written in English with a needless final e ; as, "But only to make a kind of honourable amende to God. The word remains Dr. Webster puts down as plural only, and yet uses it himself in the singular: There are also other authorities for this usage, and also for some other nouns that are commonly thought to have no singular; as, "But Duelling is unlawful and murderous, a remain of the ancient Gothic barbarity.
It is some poor fragment, some slender ort of his remainder.
Thus, deer, folk, fry, gentry, grouse, hose, neat, sheep, swine, vermin , and rest , i. Again, alms, aloes, bellows, means, news, odds, shambles , and species , are proper plurals, but most of them are oftener construed as singulars. Folk and fry are collective nouns. Folk means people ; a folk, a people: Folks , which ought to be the plural of folk , and equivalent to peoples , is now used with reference to a plurality of individuals, and the collective word seems liable to be entirely superseded by it.
A fry is a swarm of young fishes, or of any other little creatures living in water: Several such swarms might properly be called fries ; but this form can never be applied to the individuals, without interfering with the other. Formerly, the plural was hosen: Of sheep , Shakspeare has used the regular plural: Thus means is the regular plural of mean ; and, when the word is put for mediocrity, middle point, place, or degree, it takes both forms, each in its proper sense; but when it signifies things instrumental, or that which is used to effect an object, most writers use means for the singular as well as for the plural: Johnson says the use of means for mean is not very grammatical; and, among his examples for the true use of the word, he has the following: Lowth also questioned the propriety of construing means as singular, and referred to these same authors as authorities for preferring the regular form.
Buchanan insists that means is right in the plural only; and that, "The singular should be used as perfectly analogous; by this mean , by that mean. Lord Kames, likewise, appears by his practice to have been of the same opinion: Caleb Alexander, too, declares " this means ," " that means. But common usage has gone against the suggestions of these critics, and later grammarians have rather confirmed the irregularity, than attempted to reform it.
Principle is for the regular word mean , and good practice favours the irregularity, but is still divided. Cobbett, to the disgrace of grammar, says, " Mean , as a noun, is never used in the singular. It, like some other words, has broken loose from all principle and rule. By universal consent, it is become always a plural , whether used with singular or plural pronouns and articles, or not. This is as ungrammatical, as it is untrue. Both mean and means are sufficiently authorized in the singular: Chalmers, Sermons , p. Adams's Lectures on Rhetoric and Oratory , i, Thus manner makes the plural manners , which last is now generally used in the peculiar sense of behaviour, or deportment, but not always: But manner has often been put for sorts , without the s ; as, "The tree of life, which bare twelve manner of fruits.
Milton used kind in the same way, but not very properly; as, " All kind of living creatures. This irregularity it would be well to avoid. Manners may still, perhaps, be proper for modes or ways; and all manner , if allowed, must be taken in the sense of a collective noun; but for sorts, kinds, classes, or species, I would use neither the plural nor the singular of this word. The word heathen , too, makes the regular plural heathens , and yet is often used in a plural sense without the s ; as, "Why do the heathen rage? The word youth , likewise, has the same peculiarities.
Hence some grammarians affirm, that salmon, mackerel, herring, perch, tench , and several others, are alike in both numbers, and ought never to be used in the plural form. I am not so fond of honouring these anomalies. Usage is here as unsettled, as it is arbitrary; and, if the expression of plurality is to be limited to either form exclusively, the regular plural ought certainly to be preferred. But, for fish taken in bulk , the singular form seems more appropriate; as, "These vessels take from thirty-eight to forty-five quintals of cod and pollock , and six thousand barrels of mackerel , yearly.
In quoting, at second-hand, I generally think it proper to make double references; and especially in citing authorities after Johnson, because he so often gives the same passages variously. But he himself is reckoned good authority in things literary. I regret the many proofs of his fallibility. The quantity of ; as, a mease of herrings. Gay has improperly mackarels. It is noted that roaches recover strength and grow a fortnight after spawning.
There are also other nouns in which a like difference may be observed. Some names of building materials, as brick, stone, plank, joist , though not destitute of regular plurals, as bricks, stones, planks, joists , and not unadapted to ideas distinctly singular, as a brick, a stone, a plank, a joist , are nevertheless sometimes used in a plural sense without the s , and sometimes in a sense which seems hardly to embrace the idea of either number; as, "Let us make brick , and burn them thoroughly.
The same variety of usage occurs in respect to a few other words, and sometimes perhaps without good reason; as, "Vast numbers of sea fowl frequent the rocky cliffs. Our writers have laid many languages under contribution, and thus furnished an abundance of irregular words, necessary to be explained, but never to be acknowledged as English till they conform to our own rules. Dogma makes dogmas or dogmata ; exanthema, exanthemas or exanthemata ; miasm or miasma, miasms or miasmata ; stigma, stigmas or stigmata.
Of nouns in um , some have no need of the plural; as, bdellium, decorum, elysium, equilibrium, guaiacum, laudanum, odium, opium, petroleum, serum, viaticum. Some form it regularly; as, asylums, compendiums, craniums, emporiums, encomiums, forums, frustums, lustrums, mausoleums, museums, pendulums, nostrums, rostrums, residuums, vacuums. Others take either the English or the Latin plural; as, desideratums or desiderata, mediums or media, menstruums or menstrua, memorandums or memoranda, spectrums or spectra, speculums or specula, stratums or strata, succedaneums or succedanea, trapeziums or trapezia, vinculums or vincula.
A few seem to have the Latin plural only: Of nouns in us , a few have no plural; as, asparagus, calamus, mucus. Some have only the Latin plural, which usually changes us to i ; as, alumnus, alumni; androgynus, androgyni; calculus, calculi; dracunculus, dracunculi; echinus, echini; magus, magi. But such as have properly become English words, may form the plural regularly in es ; as, chorus, choruses: Five of these make the Latin plural like the singular; but the mere English scholar has no occasion to be told which they are.
Radius makes the plural radii or radiuses. The chief end of a grammar, designed for our tongue, is, to show what is, and what is not, good English. To this end, the system in question does not appear to be well adapted. Bullions, the projector of the "Series of Grammars, English, Latin, and Greek, all on the same plan ," inserted in his Latin Grammar, of , a short sketch of the new analysis by "subjects and predicates," "grammatical and logical," the scheme used by Andrews and Stoddard; but his English Grammar, which appeared in , was too early for this "new and improved method of investigating" language.
In his later English Grammar, of , however, paying little regard to sameness of "plan " or conformity of definitions, he carefully devoted to this matter the space of fifteen pages, placing the topic, not injudiciously, in the first part of his syntax, and referring to it thus in his Preface: The selections prepared for the stated praxes of this work, will be found as suitable as any.
Analysis of sentences is a central and essential matter in the teaching or the study of grammar; but the truest and the most important of the sentential analyses is parsing ; which, because it is a method distinguished by a technical name of its own, is not commonly denominated analysis.
The relation which other methods should bear to parsing , is, as we have seen, variously stated by different authors. Etymological parsing and Syntactical are, or ought to be, distinct exercises. The former, being the most simple, the most elementary, and also requisite to be used before the pupil is prepared for the latter, should, without doubt, take precedence of all the rest, and be made familiar in the first place.
Those who say, " Analysis should precede parsing ," will scarcely find the application of other analysis practicable, till this is somewhat known. But Syntactical Parsing being, when complete in form, the most thorough process of grammatical resolution, it seems proper to have introduced the other methods before it, as above. It can hardly be said that any of these are necessary to this exercise, or to one an other; yet in a full course of grammatical instruction, each may at times be usefully employed.
Bullions suggests, that, " Analysis should precede Syntactical parsing , because, till we know the parts and elements of a sentence, we can not understand their relations, nor intelligently combine them into one consistent whole. This reason is entirely fictitious and truthless; for the words of a sentence are intuitively known to be its "parts and elements;" and, to " understand their relations," is as necessary to one form of analysis as to another; but, "intelligently to combine them," is no part of the parser's duty: Allen's Grammar, as in Wells's, Syntactical parsing and Etymological are not divided.
Wells intersperses his "Exercises in Parsing," at seven points of his Syntax, and places "the chapter on Analysis," at the end of it. Allen treats first of the several parts of grammar, didactically; then presents a series of exercises adapted to the various heads of the whole. At the beginning of these, are fourteen "Methods of Parsing," which show, successively, the properties and construction of his nine parts of speech; and, at the ninth method , which resolves infinitives , it is proposed that the pupil begin to apply a method of analysis similar to the Second one above.
The grand clew to all syntactical parsing is THE SENSE; and as any composition is faulty which does not rightly deliver the authors meaning, so every solution of a word or sentence is necessarily erroneous, in which that meaning is not carefully noticed and literally preserved. In all complete syntactical parsing, it is required of the pupil--to distinguish the different parts of speech and their classes; to mention their modifications in order; to point out their relation, agreement, or government; and to apply the Rules of Syntax.
A is the indefinite article: Young is a common adjective, of the positive degree, compared regularly, young, younger, youngest: Man is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case: Studious is a common adjective, compared by means of the adverbs; studious, more studious, most studious ; or, studious, less studious, least studious: To is a preposition: Know is an irregular active-transitive verb, from know, knew, knowing, known ; found in the infinitive mood, present tense--no person, or number: His is a personal pronoun, representing man , in the third person, singular number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender: Duty is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case: And is a copulative conjunction: Honestly is an adverb of manner: Bent is a perfect participle, from the redundant active-transitive verb, bend, bent or bended, bending, bent or bended: On is a preposition: Doing is an imperfect participle, from the irregular active-transitive verb, do, did, doing, done: It is a personal pronoun, representing duty , in the third person, singular number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender: Will find is an irregular active-transitive verb, from find, found, finding, found ; found in the indicative mood, first-future tense, third person, and singular number: Himself is a compound personal pronoun, representing man, in the third person, singular number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender;" and is in the objective case, being governed by will find ; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case.
Led is a perfect participle, from the irregular active-transitive verb, lead, led, leading, led: Away is an adverb of place: From is a preposition: The is the definite article: Sin is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case: Or is a disjunctive conjunction: Folly is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case; and is connected by or to sin , and governed by the same preposition from ; according to Rule 7th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case.
In is a preposition: Which is a relative pronoun, representing sin or folly , in the third person, singular number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 13th, which says, "When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by or or nor , it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together: Multitude is a common noun, collective, of the third person, conveying the idea of plurality, masculine gender, and nominative case: Thoughtlessly is an adverb of manner: Indulge is a regular active-transitive verb, from indulge, indulged, indulging, indulged ; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and plural number: Themselves is a compound personal pronoun, representing multitude , in the third person, plural number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 11th, which says, "When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the pronoun must agree with it in the plural number: But is a disjunctive conjunction: Ah is an interjection, indicating sorrow: Poor is a common adjective, of the positive degree, compared regularly, poor, poorer, poorest: Fallen is a participial adjective, compared perhaps by adverbs: Human is a common adjective, not compared: Nature is a common noun, of the second person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: What is a pronominal adjective, not compared: Conflicts is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter gender, and nominative case: Are is an irregular neuter verb, from be, was, being, been ; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and plural number: Thy is a personal pronoun, representing nature , in the second person, singular number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender: Portion is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: When is a conjunctive adverb of time: Inclination is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: Habit is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: Rebel is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case: Traitor is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case: Exert is a regular active-transitive verb, from exert, exerted, exerting, exerted ; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and plural number: Their is a personal pronoun, representing inclination and habit , in the third person, plural number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 12th, which says, "When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by and , it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together: Sway is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case; and is governed by exert ; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case.
Against is a preposition: Our is a personal pronoun, representing the speakers , in the first person, plural number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender: Only is a pronominal adjective, not compared: Saving is a participial adjective, compared by adverbs when it means frugal , but not compared in the sense here intended: Principle is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case: The first is the art of speaking eloquently; the second, that of thinking well; and the third, that of speaking with propriety.
And let the sentence come, if God so will. The other side of the sea is my Father's ground, as well as this side. The lightning has its power, and the whirlwind has its power, and the earthquake has its power. But there is something among men more capable of shaking despotic power than lightning, whirlwind, or earthquake; that is--the threatened indignation of the whole civilized world.
The rapid style, the vehement reasoning, the disdain, anger, boldness, freedom, which perpetually animate them, would render their success infallible over any modern assembly. I question whether the same can be said of Cicero's orations; whose eloquence, however beautiful, and however well suited to the Roman taste, yet borders oftener on declamation, and is more remote from the manner in which we now expect to hear real business and causes of importance treated. The descriptions of the Deity, in them, are wonderfully noble; both from the grandeur of the object, and the manner of representing it.
Nothing but the general practice of good writers and good speakers can do it. If a man be just and beneficent, if he be temperate, modest, and prudent, he will infallibly gain the esteem and love of all who know him. Human happiness has no perfect security but freedom;--freedom, none but virtue;--virtue, none but knowledge: At Walter Raleigh's trial, Coke, when argument and evidence failed him, insulted the defendant by applying to him the term thou. Nature teaches every man to be eloquent, when he is much in earnest.
Place him in some critical situation, let him have some great interest at stake, and you will see him lay hold of the most effectual means of persuasion. Fame, like fire, is with difficulty kindled, is easily increased, but dies away if not continually fed. To preserve fame alive, every enterprise ought to be a pledge of others, so as to keep mankind in constant expectation. Laws and courts are necessary, to settle controverted points between man and man; but a man should pay an acknowledged debt, not because there is a law to oblige him, but because it is just and honest, and because he has promised to pay it.
It is therefore natural to expect, that a crime thus generally detested, should be generally avoided. A swearer will lie, and a liar is not to be believed even upon his oath; nor is he believed, when he happens to speak the truth. You know I have been constant and uniform in opposition to her measures. The die is now cast. I have passed the Rubicon. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish with my country, is my unalterable determination. Better--"on which truths grow. The genius of the trade of literature is necessarily unfriendly to such productions.
He shall be buried with the burial of an ass, drawn and cast forth beyond the gates of Jerusalem. In this chapter, and those which follow it, the Rules of Syntax are again exhibited, in the order of the parts of speech, with Examples, Exceptions, Observations, Notes, and False Syntax. The Notes are all of them, in form and character, subordinate rules of syntax, designed for the detection of errors. The correction of the False Syntax placed under the rules and notes, will form an oral exercise , similar to that of parsing, and perhaps more useful.
Articles relate to the nouns which they limit: The definite article used intensively , may relate to an adjective or adverb of the comparative or the superlative degree; as, "A land which was the mightiest. The indefinite article is sometimes used to give a collective meaning to what seems a plural adjective of number ; as, "Thou hast a few names even in Sardis. See Etymology, Articles, Obs. Hence, two or more articles in a sentence are signs of two or more nouns; and hence too, by a very convenient ellipsis, an article before an adjective is often made to relate to a noun understood; as, " The grave [ people ] rebuke the gay [ people ], and the gay [ people ] mock the grave" [ people ].
Hence the following sentence is bad English: The sense of the former noun only was meant to be limited. The expression therefore should have been, " Language and the understanding have a strict connexion," or, "The understanding has a strict connexion with language. That is--"to the aim of the speaker or the writer. Yet the omission of articles, when it occurs, is not properly by ellipsis , as some grammarians declare it to be; for there never can be a proper ellipsis of an article, when there is not also an ellipsis of its noun.
Ellipsis supposes the omitted words to be necessary to the construction, when they are not so to the sense; and this, it would seem, cannot be the case with a mere article. If such a sign be in any wise necessary, it ought to be used; and if not needed in any respect, it cannot be said to be understood. The definite article being generally required before adjectives that are used by ellipsis as nouns, we in this case repeat it before every term in a series; as, "They are singled out from among their fellows, as the kind, the amiable, the sweet-tempered, the upright.
When an adjective likewise precedes the noun, the article is usually placed before the adjective, that its power of limitation may extend over that also; as, " A concise writer compresses his thoughts into the fewest possible words. Thus, it is good English to say, " both the men ," or, " the two men ;" but we can by no means say, " the both men " or, " two the men.
Of the pronominal adjectives, some exclude the article; some precede it; and some follow it, like other adjectives. The word same is seldom, if ever used without the definite article or some stronger definitive before it; as, "On the same day,"--"in that same hour,"--" These same gentlemen. Say, " both parts. The pronominal adjectives which precede the article, are all, both, many, such , and what ; as, " All the world,"--" Both the judges,"--" Many a [] mile,"--" Such a chasm,"--" What a freak.
How beautiful a prospect is here! The pronominal adjectives which follow the article, are few, former, first, latter, last, little, one, other , and same ; as, "An author might lean either to the one [style] or to the other , and yet be beautiful. Many , like few , sometimes follows the article; as, " The many favours which we have received. In this order of the words, a seems awkward and needless; as,. Sometimes two adverbs intervene between the article and the adjective; as, "We had a rather more explicit account of the Novii. Museum , i, But when an other adverb follows too, so, as , or how , the three words should be placed either before the article or after the noun; as, "Who stands there in so purely poetical a light.
But we may suppose the noun people to be understood after this. Again, the following example, if it is not wrong, has an ellipsis of the word use after the first a:. Priestley observes, "Some writers affect to transpose these words, and place the numeral adjective first; [as,] ' The first Henry. This construction is common with this writer, but there seems to be a want of dignity in it.
Webster cites the word Great , in " Alexander the Great " as a name , or part of a name; that is, he gives it as an instance of " cognomination. And if this is right, the article may be said to relate to the epithet only, as it appears to do. For, if the word is taken substantively, there is certainly no ellipsis; neither is there any transposition in putting it last, but rather, as Priestley suggests, in putting it first.
In these instances, the article seems to be used adverbially , and to relate only to the adjective or adverb following it. See observation fourth, on the Etymology of Adverbs. Yet none of our grammarians have actually reckoned the an adverb. After the adjective , the noun might perhaps be supplied; but when the word the is added to an adverb , we must either call it an adverb, or make an exception to Rule 1st above: For even if a noun be understood, it may not appear that the article relates to it, rather than to the degree of the quality.
Ash supposes to mean, "The deeper well the well is , the clearer water the water is. But does the text specify a particular "deeper well" or "clearer water? To what then does the refer, but to the proportionate degree of deeper and clearer? That is, their knees. In support of this construction, it would be easy to adduce a great multitude of examples from the most reputable writers; but still, as it seems not very consistent, to take any word plurally after restricting it to the singular, we ought rather to avoid this if we can, and prefer words that literally agree in number: An was formerly used before all words beginning with h , and before several other words which are now pronounced in such a manner as to require a: Webster and Jameson sound the h , and consequently prefer a ; as, "But a humbling image is not always necessary to produce that effect.
These principles are briefly stated in the notes below, but it is proper that the learner should know the reasons of the distinctions which are there made. By a repetition of the article before several adjectives in the same construction, a repetition of the noun is implied; but without a repetition of the article, the adjectives, in all fairness of interpretation, are confined to one and the same noun: Here the author speaks of a cold composition and an empty composition as different things. Here the verb are has two nominatives, one of which is expressed, and the other understood.
Here the verb " are used " has two nominatives, both of which are understood; namely, "the third form ," and "the last form. Here one signification is characterized as being both original and present. That is, one manner , loose and verbose. That is, one answer, short, clear, and plain ; for the conjunctions in the text connect nothing but the adjectives. And again, not to repeat the article when the noun is singular, is also wrong; because it forces the adjectives to coalesce in describing one and the same thing.
Thus, to say, " The north and south pole " is certainly wrong, unless we mean by it, one pole , or slender stick of wood , pointing north and south; and again, to say, " The north and the south poles ," is also wrong, unless we mean by it, several poles at the north and others at the south. This means, " metaphorical language and plain language ;" and, for the sake of perfect clearness, it would perhaps be better to express it so.
That is, " intrinsic beauty and relative beauty " must often be blended; and this phraseology would be better. This may be expressed as well or better, in half a dozen other ways; for the article may be added, or the noun may be made plural, with or without the article, and before or after the adjectives. This means--"between causes of civil and causes of criminal jurisdiction;" and, for the sake of perspicuity, it ought to have been so written,--or, still better, thus: The following sentence is therefore faulty: Say, "a seat and its gardens.
The following sentence is therefore inaccurate: Say, " the merit. Thus, it is improper to say, "Both the first and second editions " or, "Both the first and the second editions " for the accurate phrase, "Both the first and the second edition ;" and still worse to say, "Neither the Old nor New Testaments " or, "Neither the Old nor the New Testaments " for the just expression, "Neither the Old nor the New Testament.
The following phrase is therefore inaccurate: Say, " the rigging. Thus some will say, " A jay is a sort of a bird ;" whereas they ought to say, " The jay is a sort of bird. Yet we may say, " The jay is a bird ," or, " A jay is a bird ;" because, as every species is one under the genus, so every individual is one under both. But, according to Note 1st, under Rule 1st, "When the indefinite article is required, a should always be used before the sound of a consonant, and an , before that of a vowel.
Johnson's Plan of a Dict. Two, the singular and plural. Murray's , 68; R. Smith's , 27; Alger's , Blair , ; Mur. Allen's False Syntax, Gram. But that I deny: The rules for the construction of Nouns, or Cases, are seven; hence this chapter, according to the order adopted above, reviews the series of rules from the second rule to the eighth, inclusively. Though Nouns are here the topic, all these seven rules apply alike to Nouns and to Pronouns ; that is, to all the words of our language which are susceptible of Cases.
A Noun or a Pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case: There are however four different ways of disposing of the nominative case. First , it is generally the subject of a verb , according to Rule 2d. Secondly , it may be put in apposition with an other nominative, according to Rule 3d. Thirdly , it may be put after a verb or a participle not transitive , according to Rule 6th.
Fourthly , it may be put absolute , or may help to form a phrase that is independent of the rest of the sentence, according to Rule 8th. But, in the following nine cases, the subject of the verb is usually placed after it, or after the first auxiliary: When a question is asked without an interrogative pronoun in the nominative case; as, " Shall mortals be implacable? When the verb is in the imperative mood; as, " Go thou "--" Come ye " But, with this mood, the pronoun is very often omitted and understood; as, "Philip saith unto him, Come and see "-- John , i, When an earnest wish, or other strong feeling, is expressed; as, " May she be happy!
When a supposition is made without the conjunction if ; as, " Had they known it;" for, " If they had known it. When neither or nor , signifying and not , precedes the verb; as, "This was his fear; nor was his apprehension groundless. When, for the sake of emphasis, some word or words are placed before the verb, which more naturally come after it; as, "Here am I.
When the verb has no regimen, and is itself emphatical; as, " Echo the mountains round. When the verbs, say, answer, reply , and the like, introduce the parts of a dialogue; as, "'Son of affliction,' said Omar , 'who art thou? When the adverb there precedes the verb; as, "There lived a man. This use of there , the general introductory adverb of place, is idiomatic, and somewhat different from the use of the same word in reference to a particular locality; as, "Because there was not much water there.
Murray's Sequel , p. Paradise Lost , B. It would seem that some, who ought to know better, are liable to mistake for the subject of such a verb, the noun which we put absolute in the nominative by direct address. Of this gross error, the following is an example: In this sentence," says its author, " study is a verb of the second person, plural number, and agrees with its nominative case, boys --according to the rule: A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person. Boys is a noun of the second person, plural number, masculine gender, in the nominative case to the verb study.
Without this mark, boys must be an objective, governed by study ; and with it, a nominative, put absolute by direct address. But, in either case, study agrees with ye or you understood, and has not the noun for its subject, or nominative. Fowle will have all pronouns to be adjectives.
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Consequently all his verbs, of every sort, agree with nouns "expressed or understood. Thus, according to this author, "They fear," means, "They things spoken of fear. And, " John, open the door," or, " Boys, stop your noise," admits no comma. And, "Be grateful, ye children," and, "Be ye grateful children," are, in his view, every way equivalent: A more regular construction would be: Lowth cites the last three examples, without suggesting any forms of correction; and says of them, "There seems to be an impropriety in these sentences, in which the same noun stands in a double capacity, performing at the same time the offices both of the nominative and objective case.
He should have said--" of both the nominative and the objective case. Webster, citing the line, "In him who is, and him who finds, a friend," adds, "Lowth condemns this use of the noun in the nominative and objective at the same time; but without reason , as the cases are not distinguished in English. This construction is translated into English, and other modern tongues, sometimes literally, or nearly so, but much oftener, by a nominative and a finite verb.
Accordingly our language does not admit a literal translation of the above-mentioned construction, except the preceding verb be such as can be interpreted transitively. It should be, "But experience teaches us, that both these opinions are alike ridiculous. Hence I deny the correctness of the following explanation: The objective case precedes the infinitive mode; [as,] 'I believe your brother to be a good man.
Brother , in the objective case, third person singular, precedes the neuter verb to be , in the infinitive mode, present time, third person singular. This author teaches that, "The infinitive mode agrees with the objective case in number and person. Which doctrine is denied; because the infinitive has no number or person, in any language. Nor do I see why the noun brother , in the foregoing example, may not be both the object of the active verb believe , and the subject of the neuter infinitive to be , at the same time; for the subject of the infinitive, if the infinitive can be said to have a subject, is not necessarily in the nominative case, or necessarily independent of what precedes.
The reason of this is--the former verb can govern one object only, and that is in such sentences the infinitive mood; the intervening objective being the subject of the infinitive following, and not governed by the former verb; as, in that instance, it would be governing two objects. In Greek and Latin, it is certainly no uncommon thing for a verb to govern two cases at once; and even the accusative before the infinitive is sometimes governed by the preceding verb, as the objective before the infinitive naturally is in English.
But, in regard to construction, every language differs more or less from every other; hence each must have its own syntax, and abide by its own rules. In regard to the point here in question, the reader may compare the following examples: O echon hota akouein, akoueto]. Journal of the N. Literary Convention , p.
Here the four words, some, choice, which , and plan , may appear to a Latinist to be so many objectives, or accusatives, placed before infinitives, and used to describe that state of things which the author would promote.