While some of our students enter the work force upon completion of their undergraduate degree, the majority continue their education. SCPA graduates tend to do graduate work either in their disciplines or, more often, in professionally oriented programs including public or business administration, international affairs, industrial relations, and law.
The historic Mackay Street building which the School occupies is an ideal site for small classes, public lectures, social events, and meetings. School facilities include a common room, a reading room and documentation centre, a seminar room, a computer room, and faculty and student offices. Program Students who enrol in the School of Community and Public Affairs must follow, in sequence, a three-stage program comprised of the following courses: Students wishing to enter the School will be interviewed personally and asked to complete a writing test.
The interview process also serves to evaluate their language skills in both English and French. In exceptional circumstances, a candidate who has failed to meet the grade requirements might be admitted on the basis of a personal assessment of potential capacities. For further information on curriculum, programs, personnel, and objectives, please call , ext. Using a multidisciplinary approach, it pays particular attention to the complex interaction between groups, individuals, and institutions in society, and brings students to consider issues related to the nature of the modern state, business-government relations, the labour movement, non-profit and community organizations, the influence of interest groups, media and international institutions on the policy agenda.
Students who have received credit for SCPA may not take this course for credit. It focuses on the labour movement, social movements and interest groups, and analyzes their role and influence in the policy-making process in Quebec and Canada, especially with regard to social policy, socio-economic development and human rights. This course is taught in French. Students required to take this course under Political Science as part of a major or specialization in that discipline must replace the credits with a course chosen in consultation with the SCPA advisor.
Students required to take this course under History as part of a major or specialization in that discipline must replace the credits with a course chosen in consultation with the SCPA advisor. While due emphasis is placed on political developments in the province, the purpose of the course is to acquaint the student with the significant economic and social trends in modern Quebec. Theories and Issues 3 credits This course explores key concepts and paradigms of immigration, migration and diversity issues confronting nation-states around the globe and examines questions relating to illegal immigration, refugee movements, economic migrants, temporary migration and population displacement due to conflict and environmental issues and the subject of integration.
Successful completion of Stage I. This course emphasizes a deeper understanding of the process by which public policies are developed, implemented, and advocated, and of the role played by various institutions or groups in this process. Each year, a new set of key policy issues is selected for discussion and analysis.
Students work in teams and are required to do case studies of institutions or groups relevant to the policy or public affairs issue they have chosen. The focus is on developing both communication skills, through oral and written presentations, and organizational skills as each team must organize one public panel discussion on one of the selected issues. The course takes place over the fall and winter terms. Students learn about the evolution of policy in these areas as well as covering topics such as public opinion and reactions toward immigration, advantages and challenges of multiculturalism vs.
Successful completion of Stage I or permission of the School. This course examines and analyzes the ways in which corporate, public, and community organizations anticipate, monitor, and manage their relations with the social, political, and environmental forces which shape their operations and influence their action in their respective field. It familiarizes students with the strategies most often used in public affairs management, and develops the skills required for effective results.
The course will be offered in both English and French on a rotational basis.
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Please consult the Undergraduate Class Schedule for details. It critically examines traditions and histories of a variety of perspectives and presents current examples of local and community activism. Specific topics for this course, and prerequisites relevant in each case, are stated in the Undergraduate Class Schedule. Successful completion of Stages I and II. After completing 60 credits of the BA program, including Stages I and II, students are required to complete a practicum that will allow them to test their skills in a real situation.
Placements may be drawn from all areas of possible employment, including the private sector, government and community service organizations. Students are expected to participate fully in finding and defining possible internships. Employers are asked to join in an evaluation of the work period. Students are required to submit a written report which summarizes and evaluates their work experience.
In this course, students work in groups and are required to play out the position of a given corporate, public, or community organization in a simulation of real-life interaction between social and political actors over a particular policy issue. To this end, they must research and prepare all the necessary material such as briefs, position papers, press kits that will allow them to defend and make their policy position known.
The actual simulation takes place in a one-day event at the end of the term. Student who have received credit for this topic under a SCPA number may not take this course for credit.
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The relationships between media institutions and political institutions, both in Canada and internationally, are examined. Issues such as the flow of political information; the social and political construction of news; the politics of regulation; the politics of influence in campaigns, nation-building socialization through media; ideology in the media, and alternatives to traditional media are explored.
Students required to take this course under Communication Studies as part of a major or specialization in that discipline must replace the credits with a course chosen in consultation with the SCPA advisor. The aim of this course is to recognize the orchestration of the elements of propaganda in media, and to develop the means to deal with it. Course methodology includes lectures, discussions, and projects. This course focuses upon communication as persuasive or as producing identification. Emphasis is placed upon the role of communication in civic affairs. Classical and contemporary approaches to rhetorical theory and criticism are examined.
In this context, it explores immigrant-based agencies and social movements, and equitable approaches to settlement services and community development to help newcomers adapt to their new environment. It also looks at integration outcomes of immigrants: This course is a field project undertaken under the auspices of a non-profit organization working in the domain of immigration. The analysis provided by the students is shared with the organization enabling students to be directly involved and engaged in the field of immigration as practitioners.
This course provides focused, in-depth examination and analysis of a particular policy topic, public affairs issue, or problem of community development. The subject of inquiry changes every year. These guiding concepts are often misunderstood by mainstream society. Principles and practices of dialogue and cross-cultural communication are introduced. A key process goal of the course is for students to explore, with increasing skill and knowledge, their own motivations, positioning, and goals in relation to pursuing First Peoples Studies.
It explores theories of migration, geographic location, cultural and linguistic diversity, historical socio-economic and political systems as well as the relationships with the environment and traditional practices and beliefs. In-depth focus is placed on representative nations within each group. From a historical perspective and using a sociological approach, this course examines social and political structures, gender-defined roles, relationship with the environment, as well as spirituality and language.
This course also examines changing roles and structures influenced by colonization, including the imposition of federal policies. The course examines social and political structures, gender-defined roles, the Arctic way of life, the Inuit language and its dialects, as well as the spiritual beliefs of the Inuit. Indigenous Ways of Knowing 1 credit Prerequisite: Registration in the program and permission of the School.
This course examines how traditional knowledge continues to maintain relevance in the modern world. Students learn, both personally and professionally, how to work with, incorporate, and record indigenous knowledge. This course focuses on the Indian Act, with an emphasis on its impact on the First Peoples of Quebec. This includes discussion of the events leading up to its imposition, its implications for First Peoples cultures and societies, as well as related policies and other instruments of assimilation and colonization. Issues of accommodation and resistance are discussed.
Effects of proposed changes to the Indian Act are analyzed and alternative solutions are explored. This course traces the history of the education of the First Peoples. It explores current issues in education, including educational approaches defined and implemented by First Peoples. Topics covered include traditional ways of learning and teaching.
This course addresses First Peoples wellness philosophies and healing approaches in dealing with contemporary health problems. It draws significantly on historical perspectives of First Peoples mental, physical, spiritual, and emotional health issues, including pre-contact health and environments, the introduction of alcohol and viral disease, as well as the emergence of lifestyle-related diseases.
This course provides an in-depth examination of various artist traditions among First Peoples. The lived experiences and realities of First Peoples will inform all topics examined in the course. The course introduces the student to basic vocabulary, different dialects and writing systems. It explores the basic components that make up Algonquian languages, including sounds, word composition, sentence structure and meaning.
Other topics include linguistic interference from dominant languages, semantic shift and the use of language as a social tool. This course assists the student to recognize and value the social and cultural context of language. George Washington gave orders that made it clear he wanted the Iroquois threat completely eliminated:.
The Expedition you are appointed to command is to be directed against the hostile tribes of the Six Nations of Indians, with their associates and adherents. The immediate objects are the total destruction and devastation of their settlements, and the capture of as many prisoners of every age and sex as possible. It will be essential to ruin their crops now in the ground and prevent their planting more. The British made peace with the Americans in the Treaty of Paris , through which they ceded vast Native American territories to the United States without informing or consulting with the Native Americans.
The United States was eager to expand, develop farming and settlements in new areas, and satisfy land hunger of settlers from New England and new immigrants. The national government initially sought to purchase Native American land by treaties. The states and settlers were frequently at odds with this policy. George Washington and Henry Knox believed that Native Americans were equals but that their society was inferior. Washington formulated a policy to encourage the "civilizing" process.
In the late 18th century, reformers starting with Washington and Knox, [78] supported educating native children and adults, in efforts to "civilize" or otherwise assimilate Native Americans to the larger society as opposed to relegating them to reservations. The Civilization Fund Act of promoted this civilization policy by providing funding to societies mostly religious who worked on Native American improvement. Two epidemics of measles, one in and the other in , caused many deaths. The mortality rates were so high that the missions were constantly dependent upon new conversions.
As American expansion continued, Native Americans resisted settlers' encroachment in several regions of the new nation and in unorganized territories , from the Northwest to the Southeast, and then in the West, as settlers encountered the Native American tribes of the Great Plains. East of the Mississippi River, an intertribal army led by Tecumseh , a Shawnee chief, fought a number of engagements in the Northwest during the period —12, known as Tecumseh's War. During the War of , Tecumseh's forces allied themselves with the British. After Tecumseh's death, the British ceased to aid the Native Americans south and west of Upper Canada and American expansion proceeded with little resistance.
In the s, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act of , a policy of relocating Indians from their homelands to Indian Territory and reservations in surrounding areas to open their lands for non-native settlements. O'Sullivan coined the phrase, " Manifest Destiny ", as the "design of Providence" supporting the territorial expansion of the United States. Native American nations on the plains in the west continued armed conflicts with the U.
Expressing the frontier anti-Indian sentiment, Theodore Roosevelt believed the Indians were destined to vanish under the pressure of white civilization, stating in an lecture:. I don't go so far as to think that the only good Indians are dead Indians, but I believe nine out of ten are, and I shouldn't like to inquire too closely into the case of the tenth. Among the most notable events during the wars was the Wounded Knee Massacre in Army's attempt to subdue the Lakota.
The dance was part of a religious movement founded by the Northern Paiute spiritual leader Wovoka that told of the return of the Messiah to relieve the suffering of Native Americans and promised that if they would live righteous lives and perform the Ghost Dance properly, the European American colonists would vanish, the bison would return, and the living and the dead would be reunited in an Edenic world. At the outbreak of the war, for example, the minority party of the Cherokees gave its allegiance to the Confederacy, while originally the majority party went for the North.
In the 19th century, the incessant westward expansion of the United States incrementally compelled large numbers of Native Americans to resettle further west, often by force, almost always reluctantly. Native Americans believed this forced relocation illegal, given the Treaty of Hopewell of As many as , Native Americans relocated to the West as a result of this Indian removal policy.
In theory, relocation was supposed to be voluntary and many Native Americans did remain in the East.
In practice, great pressure was put on Native American leaders to sign removal treaties. In , the Cherokee became the first Native Americans recognized as U. Under Article 8 of the Cherokee treaty, "Upwards of Cherokees Heads of Families in the honest simplicity of their souls, made an election to become American citizens". After the American Civil War, the Civil Rights Act of states, "that all persons born in the United States, and not subject to any foreign power, excluding Indians not taxed, are hereby declared to be citizens of the United States".
Grant , ending United States recognition of additional Native American tribes or independent nations, and prohibiting additional treaties. After the Indian wars in the late 19th century, the government established Native American boarding schools , initially run primarily by or affiliated with Christian missionaries. The boarding school experience was a total immersion in modern American society, but it could prove traumatic to children, who were forbidden to speak their native languages. They were taught Christianity and not allowed to practice their native religions, and in numerous other ways forced to abandon their Native American identities.
Before the s, schools on the reservations provided no schooling beyond the sixth grade. To obtain more, boarding school was usually necessary. The "Indian New Deal" of the s closed many of the boarding schools, and downplayed the assimilationist goals. The Indian Division of the Civilian Conservation Corps operated large-scale construction projects on the reservations, building thousands of new schools and community buildings.
The Navajo largely opposed schooling of any sort, but the other tribes accepted the system. There were now high schools on larger reservations, educating not only teenagers but also an adult audience. There were no Indian facilities for higher education. They promoted traditional arts and crafts of the sort that could be conducted on the reservations, such as making jewelry.
The New Deal reformers met significant resistance from parents and teachers, and had mixed results. World War II brought younger Indians in contact with the broader society through military service and work in the munitions industries. The role of schooling was changed to focus on vocational education for jobs in urban America. Since the rise of self-determination for Native Americans, they have generally emphasized education of their children at schools near where they live.
In addition, many federally recognized tribes have taken over operations of such schools and added programs of language retention and revival to strengthen their cultures. Beginning in the s, tribes have also founded colleges at their reservations, controlled, and operated by Native Americans, to educate their young for jobs as well as to pass on their cultures. On August 29, , Ishi , generally considered to have been the last Native American to live most of his life without contact with European-American culture, was discovered near Oroville, California.
Nearly 10, men had enlisted and served, a high number in relation to their population. On June 2, , U. Prior to passage of the act, nearly two-thirds of Native Americans were already U. He was very influential in the Senate. In he ran as the vice-presidential candidate with Herbert Hoover for president, and served from to He was the first person with significant Native American ancestry and the first person with acknowledged non-European ancestry to be elected to either of the highest offices in the land.
American Indians today in the United States have all the rights guaranteed in the U. Constitution , can vote in elections, and run for political office. Controversies remain over how much the federal government has jurisdiction over tribal affairs, sovereignty, and cultural practices. Mid-century, the Indian termination policy and the Indian Relocation Act of marked a new direction for assimilating Native Americans into urban life. The census counted , Indians in and , in , including those on and off reservations in the 48 states.
Their fellow soldiers often held them in high esteem, in part since the legend of the tough Native American warrior had become a part of the fabric of American historical legend. White servicemen sometimes showed a lighthearted respect toward Native American comrades by calling them "chief". The resulting increase in contact with the world outside of the reservation system brought profound changes to Native American culture. Indian Commissioner in , "caused the greatest disruption of Native life since the beginning of the reservation era", affecting the habits, views, and economic well-being of tribal members.
There were also losses as a result of the war. In addition, many more Navajo served as code talkers for the military in the Pacific. The code they made, although cryptologically very simple, was never cracked by the Japanese. Military service and urban residency contributed to the rise of American Indian activism, particularly after the s and the occupation of Alcatraz Island — by a student Indian group from San Francisco.
In the same period, the American Indian Movement AIM was founded in Minneapolis , and chapters were established throughout the country, where American Indians combined spiritual and political activism. Political protests gained national media attention and the sympathy of the American public. Through the mids, conflicts between governments and Native Americans occasionally erupted into violence.
Upset with tribal government and the failures of the federal government to enforce treaty rights, about Oglala Lakota and AIM activists took control of Wounded Knee on February 27, Indian activists from around the country joined them at Pine Ridge, and the occupation became a symbol of rising American Indian identity and power. Federal law enforcement officials and the national guard cordoned off the town, and the two sides had a standoff for 71 days. During much gunfire, one United States Marshal was wounded and paralyzed. In late April, a Cherokee and local Lakota man were killed by gunfire; the Lakota elders ended the occupation to ensure no more lives were lost.
In June , two FBI agents seeking to make an armed robbery arrest at Pine Ridge Reservation were wounded in a firefight, and killed at close range. In , the government enacted the Indian Civil Rights Act. This gave tribal members most of the protections against abuses by tribal governments that the Bill of Rights accords to all U. It resulted from American Indian activism, the Civil Rights Movement, and community development aspects of President Lyndon Johnson 's social programs of the s.
The Act recognized the right and need of Native Americans for self-determination. It marked the U. Tribes have developed organizations to administer their own social, welfare and housing programs, for instance. Tribal self-determination has created tension with respect to the federal government's historic trust obligation to care for Indians; however, the Bureau of Indian Affairs has never lived up to that responsibility. Tensions immediately arose between two philosophies: There was a great deal of turnover, exacerbated by very tight budgets. Congress passed legislation recognizing the tribal colleges as land-grant colleges , which provided opportunities for large-scale funding.
By the early 21st century, tribal nations had also established numerous language revival programs in their schools. In addition, Native American activism has led major universities across the country to establish Native American studies programs and departments, increasing awareness of the strengths of Indian cultures, providing opportunities for academics, and deepening research on history and cultures in the United States.
Native Americans have entered academia; journalism and media; politics at local, state and federal levels; and public service, for instance, influencing medical research and policy to identify issues related to American Indians. In , an "apology to Native Peoples of the United States" was included in the defense appropriations act.
It states that the U. In , jurisdiction over persons who were not tribal members under the Violence Against Women Act was extended to Indian Country. This closed a gap which prevented arrest or prosecution by tribal police or courts of abusive partners of tribal members who were not native or from another tribe.
Many lived in poverty. Racism, unemployment, drugs and gangs were common problems which Indian social service organizations such as the Little Earth housing complex in Minneapolis attempted to address. The Census showed that the U. Together, these two groups totaled 5. According to Office of Management and Budget, "American Indian or Alaska Native" refers to a person having origins in any of the original peoples of North and South America including Central America and who maintains tribal affiliation or community attachment.
The census permitted respondents to self-identify as being of one or more races. Self-identification dates from the census of ; prior to that the race of the respondent was determined by opinion of the census taker. The option to select more than one race was introduced in The census counted , Indians in , , in and , in , including those on and off reservations in the 48 states.
Full-blood individuals are more likely to live on a reservation than mixed-blood individuals. The Navajo , with , full-blood individuals, is the largest tribe if only full-blood individuals are counted; the Navajo are the tribe with the highest proportion of full-blood individuals, The Cherokee have a different history; it is the largest tribe with , individuals, and it has , full-blood individuals.
Many live in poverty. Racism, unemployment, drugs and gangs are common problems which Indian social service organizations such as the Little Earth housing complex in Minneapolis attempt to address. According to United States Census Bureau estimates, a little over one third of the 2,, Native Americans in the United States live in three states: California at ,, Arizona at , and Oklahoma at , Census Bureau estimated that about 0.
This population is unevenly distributed across the country. Census Bureau estimated that about less than 1. This population is unevenly distributed across twenty-six states. They are listed by the proportion of residents citing Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander ancestry, based on estimates:. Below are numbers for U. There are federally recognized tribal governments [] in the United States. These tribes possess the right to form their own governments, to enforce laws both civil and criminal within their lands, to tax, to establish requirements for membership, to license and regulate activities, to zone, and to exclude persons from tribal territories.
Limitations on tribal powers of self-government include the same limitations applicable to states; for example, neither tribes nor states have the power to make war, engage in foreign relations, or coin money this includes paper currency. In , eight of ten Americans with Native American ancestry were of mixed ancestry. It is estimated that by that figure will rise to nine out of ten. In addition, there are a number of tribes that are recognized by individual states , but not by the federal government.
The rights and benefits associated with state recognition vary from state to state. Some tribal groups have been unable to document the cultural continuity required for federal recognition.
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The Muwekma Ohlone of the San Francisco bay area are pursuing litigation in the federal court system to establish recognition. Several tribes in Virginia and North Carolina have gained state recognition. Federal recognition confers some benefits, including the right to label arts and crafts as Native American and permission to apply for grants that are specifically reserved for Native Americans.
But gaining federal recognition as a tribe is extremely difficult; to be established as a tribal group, members have to submit extensive genealogical proof of tribal descent and continuity of the tribe as a culture. In July , the Washington State Republican Party adopted a resolution recommending that the federal and legislative branches of the U. House of Representatives to "terminate" the Cherokee Nation. As of , various Native Americans are wary of attempts by others to gain control of their reservation lands for natural resources, such as coal and uranium in the West.
In the state of Virginia , Native Americans face a unique problem. Until Virginia previously had no federally recognized tribes but the state had recognized eight. This is related historically to the greater impact of disease and warfare on the Virginia Indian populations, as well as their intermarriage with Europeans and Africans.
Some people confused the ancestry with culture, but groups of Virginia Indians maintained their cultural continuity. Most of their early reservations were ended under the pressure of early European settlement.
Some historians also note the problems of Virginia Indians in establishing documented continuity of identity, due to the work of Walter Ashby Plecker — As registrar of the state's Bureau of Vital Statistics, he applied his own interpretation of the one-drop rule , enacted in law in as the state's Racial Integrity Act. It recognized only two races: Plecker, a segregationist , believed that the state's Native Americans had been "mongrelized" by intermarriage with African Americans ; to him, ancestry determined identity, rather than culture.
He thought that some people of partial black ancestry were trying to " pass " as Native Americans. Plecker pressured local governments into reclassifying all Native Americans in the state as "colored", and gave them lists of family surnames to examine for reclassification based on his interpretation of data and the law. This led to the state's destruction of accurate records related to families and communities who identified as Native American as in church records and daily life.
By his actions, sometimes different members of the same family were split by being classified as "white" or "colored". He did not allow people to enter their primary identification as Native American in state records. To achieve federal recognition and its benefits, tribes must prove continuous existence since The federal government has maintained this requirement, in part because through participation on councils and committees, federally recognized tribes have been adamant about groups' satisfying the same requirements as they did.
Native American struggles amid poverty to maintain life on the reservation or in larger society have resulted in a variety of health issues, some related to nutrition and health practices. The community suffers a vulnerability to and disproportionately high rate of alcoholism. It has long been recognized that Native Americans are dying of diabetes , alcoholism, tuberculosis , suicide , and other health conditions at shocking rates. Beyond disturbingly high mortality rates, Native Americans also suffer a significantly lower health status and disproportionate rates of disease compared with all other Americans.
In a study conducted in —, non-Native Americans admitted they rarely encountered Native Americans in their daily lives. While sympathetic toward Native Americans and expressing regret over the past, most people had only a vague understanding of the problems facing Native Americans today. For their part, Native Americans told researchers that they believed they continued to face prejudice , mistreatment, and inequality in the broader society. Federal contractors and subcontractors, such as businesses and educational institutions, are legally required to adopt equal opportunity employment and affirmative action measures intended to prevent discrimination against employees or applicants for employment on the basis of "color, religion, sex, or national origin".
However, self-reporting is permitted: Self-reporting opens the door to "box checking" by people who, despite not having a substantial relationship to Native American culture, innocently or fraudulently check the box for Native American. American Indian activists in the United States and Canada have criticized the use of Native American mascots in sports, as perpetuating stereotypes. There has been a steady decline in the number of secondary school and college teams using such names, images, and mascots. Some tribal team names have been approved by the tribe in question, such as the Seminole Tribe of Florida 's approving use of their name for the teams of Florida State University.
Controversy has remained regarding teams such as the NFL 's Washington Redskins , whose name is considered to be a racial slur , [] and MLB 's Cleveland Indians , whose usage of a caricature called Chief Wahoo has also faced protest. Native Americans have been depicted by American artists in various ways at different periods.
A number of 19th- and 20th-century United States and Canadian painters, often motivated by a desire to document and preserve Native culture, specialized in Native American subjects. In the 20th century, early portrayals of Native Americans in movies and television roles were first performed by European Americans dressed in mock traditional attire. Roles of Native Americans were limited and not reflective of Native American culture.
For years, Native people on U. During the years of the series Bonanza — , no major or secondary Native characters appeared on a consistent basis. The series The Lone Ranger — , Cheyenne — , and Law of the Plainsman — had Native characters who were essentially aides to the central white characters. This continued in such series as How the West Was Won. These programs resembled the "sympathetic" yet contradictory film Dances With Wolves of , in which, according to Ella Shohat and Robert Stam, the narrative choice was to relate the Lakota story as told through a Euro-American voice, for wider impact among a general audience.
An American Legend , Dances with Wolves employed a number of Native American actors, and made an effort to portray Indigenous languages. In We Shall Remain , a television documentary by Ric Burns and part of the American Experience series, presented a five-episode series "from a Native American perspective". It represented "an unprecedented collaboration between Native and non-Native filmmakers and involves Native advisors and scholars at all levels of the project".
Native Americans are often known as Indians or American Indians. The term Native American was introduced in the United States in preference to the older term Indian to distinguish the indigenous peoples of the Americas from the people of India , and to avoid negative stereotypes associated with the term Indian. Many indigenous Americans, however, prefer the term American Indian [] and many tribes include the word Indian in their formal title. Criticism of the neologism Native American comes from diverse sources. Russell Means , an American Indian activist, opposed the term Native American because he believed it was imposed by the government without the consent of American Indians.
He has also argued that the use of the word Indian derives not from a confusion with India but from a Spanish expression en Dios meaning "in God" [] [ verification needed ] and a near- homophone of the Spanish word for "Indians", indios. Gambling has become a leading industry. Casinos operated by many Native American governments in the United States are creating a stream of gambling revenue that some communities are beginning to leverage to build diversified economies. Some tribes, such as the Winnemem Wintu of Redding, California , feel that casinos and their proceeds destroy culture from the inside out.
These tribes refuse to participate in the gambling industry. Numerous tribes around the country have entered the financial services market including the Otoe-Missouria , Tunica-Biloxi , and the Rosebud Sioux. Because of the challenges involved in starting a financial services business from scratch, many tribes hire outside consultants and vendors to help them launch these businesses and manage the regulatory issues involved. Similar to the tribal sovereignty debates that occurred when tribes first entered the gaming industry, the tribes, states, and federal government are currently in disagreement regarding who possesses the authority to regulate these e-commerce business entities.
Prosecution of serious crime, historically endemic on reservations, [] [] was required by the Major Crimes Act, [] 18 U. A December 13, New York Times article about growing gang violence on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation estimated that there were 39 gangs with 5, members on that reservation alone. As of , a high incidence of rape continued to impact Native American women and Alaskan native women.
According to the Department of Justice, 1 in 3 Native women have suffered rape or attempted rape, more than twice the national rate. Bruce Duthu, "More than 80 percent of Indian victims identify their attacker as non-Indian". Today, other than tribes successfully running casinos, many tribes struggle, as they are often located on reservations isolated from the main economic centers of the country. According to the Census , an estimated , Native Americans reside on reservation land. Social statistics highlight the challenges faced by Native American communities: What Can Tribes Do?
Strategies and Institutions in American Indian Economic Development , [] are summarized as follows:. A major barrier to development is the lack of entrepreneurial knowledge and experience within Indian reservations. Consequently, experiential entrepreneurship education needs to be embedded into school curricula and after-school and other community activities. This would allow students to learn the essential elements of entrepreneurship from a young age and encourage them to apply these elements throughout life". Historical trauma is described as collective emotional and psychological damage throughout a person's lifetime and across multiple generations.
American Indian youth have higher rates of substance and alcohol abuse deaths than the general population. American Indians do not view mind, body, and soul as separate from each other or themselves as the Western worldview does. American Indians believe all is connected and related to each other. The culture of Pre-Columbian North America is usually defined by the concept of the culture area, namely a geographical region where shared cultural traits occur. The northwest culture area, for example shared common traits such as salmon fishing, woodworking, large villages or towns and a hierarchical social structure.
Though cultural features, language, clothing, and customs vary enormously from one tribe to another, there are certain elements which are encountered frequently and shared by many tribes. Early European American scholars described the Native Americans as having a society dominated by clans. European colonization of the Americas had a major impact on Native American culture through what is known as the Columbian exchange.
The Columbian exchange , also known as the Columbian interchange , was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World in the 15th and 16th centuries, following Christopher Columbus 's voyage. The impact of the Columbian exchange was not entirely negative however. For example, the re-introduction of the horse to North America allowed the Plains Indian to revolutionize their way of life by making hunting, trading, and warfare far more effective, and to greatly improve their ability to transport possessions and move their settlements.
The Great Plains tribes were still hunting the bison when they first encountered the Europeans. The Spanish reintroduction of the horse to North America in the 17th century and Native Americans' learning to use them greatly altered the Native Americans' culture, including changing the way in which they hunted large game. Horses became such a valuable, central element of Native lives that they were counted as a measure of wealth. Uto-Aztecan has the most speakers 1. Southwest and northern Mexico with one outlier in the Plains.
Several families consist of only 2 or 3 languages. Demonstrating genetic relationships has proved difficult due to the great linguistic diversity present in North America. Two large super- family proposals, Penutian and Hokan , look particularly promising. However, even after decades of research, a large number of families remain. A number of English words have been derived from Native American languages. To counteract a shift to English, some Native American tribes have initiated language immersion schools for children, where a native Indian language is the medium of instruction.
For example, the Cherokee Nation initiated a year language preservation plan that involved raising new fluent speakers of the Cherokee language from childhood on up through school immersion programs as well as a collaborative community effort to continue to use the language at home. There is also a Cherokee language immersion school in Tahlequah, Oklahoma, that educates students from pre-school through eighth grade. An early crop the Native Americans grew was squash. Other early crops included cotton , sunflower , pumpkins , tobacco , goosefoot , knotgrass , and sump weed.
Agriculture in the southwest started around 4, years ago when traders brought cultigens from Mexico. Due to the varying climate, some ingenuity was needed for agriculture to be successful. The climate in the southwest ranged from cool, moist mountains regions, to dry, sandy soil in the desert. Some innovations of the time included irrigation to bring water into the dry regions and the selection of seed based on the traits of the growing plants that bore them.
In the southwest, they grew beans that were self-supported, much like the way they are grown today. In the east, however, they were planted next to corn in order for the vines to be able to "climb" the cornstalks. The most important crop the Native Americans raised was maize. It was first started in Mesoamerica and spread north.
About 2, years ago it reached eastern America. This crop was important to the Native Americans because it was part of their everyday diet; it could be stored in underground pits during the winter, and no part of it was wasted. The husk was made into art crafts, and the cob was used as fuel for fires. By CE the Native Americans had established three main crops—beans, squash, and corn—called the three sisters. The agriculture gender roles of the Native Americans varied from region to region.
In the southwest area, men prepared the soil with hoes. The women were in charge of planting, weeding, and harvesting the crops. In most other regions, the women were in charge of doing everything, including clearing the land. Clearing the land was an immense chore since the Native Americans rotated fields frequently.
There is a tradition that Squanto showed the Pilgrims in New England how to put fish in fields to act like a fertilizer, but the truth of this story is debated. Native Americans did plant beans next to corn; the beans would replace the nitrogen which the corn took from the ground, as well as using corn stalks for support for climbing. Native Americans used controlled fires to burn weeds and clear fields; this would put nutrients back into the ground. If this did not work, they would simply abandon the field to let it be fallow, and find a new spot for cultivation.
Europeans in the eastern part of the continent observed that Native Americans cleared large areas for cropland. Their fields in New England sometimes covered hundreds of acres. Colonists in Virginia noted thousands of acres under cultivation by Native Americans. Native Americans commonly used tools such as the hoe, maul , and dibber.
The hoe was the main tool used to till the land and prepare it for planting; then it was used for weeding. The first versions were made out of wood and stone. When the settlers brought iron, Native Americans switched to iron hoes and hatchets. The dibber was a digging stick, used to plant the seed. Once the plants were harvested, women prepared the produce for eating.
They used the maul to grind the corn into mash. It was cooked and eaten that way or baked as corn bread. Traditional Native American ceremonies are still practiced by many tribes and bands, and the older theological belief systems are still held by many of the native people. While much Native American spiritualism exists in a tribal-cultural continuum, and as such cannot be easily separated from tribal identity itself, certain other more clearly defined movements have arisen among "traditional" Native American practitioners, these being identifiable as "religions" in the prototypical sense familiar in the industrialized Western world.
Traditional practices of some tribes include the use of sacred herbs such as tobacco, sweetgrass or sage. Many Plains tribes have sweatlodge ceremonies, though the specifics of the ceremony vary among tribes. Fasting, singing and prayer in the ancient languages of their people, and sometimes drumming are also common.
The Midewiwin Lodge is a traditional medicine society inspired by the oral traditions and prophesies of the Ojibwa Chippewa and related tribes. Another significant religious body among Native peoples is known as the Native American Church. It is a syncretistic church incorporating elements of Native spiritual practice from a number of different tribes as well as symbolic elements from Christianity. Its main rite is the peyote ceremony. Prior to , traditional religious beliefs included Wakan Tanka.
In the American Southwest, especially New Mexico , a syncretism between the Catholicism brought by Spanish missionaries and the native religion is common; the religious drums, chants, and dances of the Pueblo people are regularly part of Masses at Santa Fe 's Saint Francis Cathedral. The eagle feather law Title 50 Part 22 of the Code of Federal Regulations stipulates that only individuals of certifiable Native American ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe are legally authorized to obtain eagle feathers for religious or spiritual use.
The law does not allow Native Americans to give eagle feathers to non-Native Americans. Gender roles are differentiated in many Native American tribes. Many Natives have historically defied colonial expectations of sexuality and gender, and continue to do so in contemporary life. Whether a particular tribe is predominantly matrilineal or patrilineal , often both sexes have some degree of decision-making power within the tribe.
Many Nations, such as the Haudenosaunee Five Nations and the Southeast Muskogean tribes, have matrilineal or Clan Mother systems, in which property and hereditary leadership are controlled by and passed through the maternal lines. In Cherokee culture, women own the family property. When traditional young women marry, their husbands may join them in their mother's household. Matrilineal structures enable young women to have assistance in childbirth and rearing, and protect them in case of conflicts between the couple. If a couple separates or the man dies, the woman has her family to assist her.
In matrilineal cultures the mother's brothers are usually the leading male figures in her children's lives; fathers have no standing in their wife and children's clan, as they still belong to their own mother's clan. Hereditary clan chief positions pass through the mother's line and chiefs have historically been selected on recommendation of women elders, who also could disapprove of a chief.
In the patrilineal tribes, such as the Omaha , Osage , Ponca , and Lakota , hereditary leadership passes through the male line, and children are considered to belong to the father and his clan. In patrilineal tribes, if a woman marries a non-Native, she is no longer considered part of the tribe, and her children are considered to share the ethnicity and culture of their father.
In patriarchal tribes, gender roles tend to be rigid. Men have historically hunted, traded and made war while, as life-givers, women have primary responsibility for the survival and welfare of the families and future of the tribe. Women usually gather and cultivate plants, use plants and herbs to treat illnesses, care for the young and the elderly, make all the clothing and instruments, and process and cure meat and skins from the game. Some mothers use cradleboards to carry an infant while working or traveling.
At least several dozen tribes allowed polygyny to sisters, with procedural and economic limits. Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota girls are encouraged to learn to ride, hunt and fight. Native American leisure time led to competitive individual and team sports. Native American ball sports, sometimes referred to as lacrosse , stickball, or baggataway, were often used to settle disputes, rather than going to war, as a civil way to settle potential conflict. The Choctaw called it isitoboli "Little Brother of War" ; [] the Onondaga name was dehuntshigwa'es "men hit a rounded object". There are three basic versions, classified as Great Lakes, Iroquoian, and Southern.
The game is played with one or two rackets or sticks and one ball.
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The object of the game is to land the ball in the opposing team's goal either a single post or net to score and to prevent the opposing team from scoring on your goal. The game involves as few as 20 or as many as players with no height or weight restrictions and no protective gear. A Jesuit priest [ who? Currently in the WNBA, there are 2 women who are of Native ancestry and enrolled in federally recognized tribes. In , she was picked up on waivers by the Seattle Storm. The disk would roll down the corridor, and players would throw wooden shafts at the moving disk.
The object of the game was to strike the disk or prevent your opponents from hitting it. Jim Thorpe , a Sauk and Fox Native American, was an all-round athlete playing football and baseball in the early 20th century. Future President Dwight Eisenhower injured his knee while trying to tackle the young Thorpe.
Mark My Words
In a speech, Eisenhower recalled Thorpe: My memory goes back to Jim Thorpe. He never practiced in his life, and he could do anything better than any other football player I ever saw. In the Olympics, Thorpe could run the yard dash in 10 seconds flat, the in Olympic trials for the pentathlon and the decathlon. Louis Tewanima , Hopi people , was an American two-time Olympic distance runner and silver medalist in the 10, meter run in His silver medal in remained the best U.
Tewanima also competed at the Olympics, where he finished in ninth place in the marathon. He was the only American ever to win the Olympic gold in this event. An unknown before the Olympics, Mills finished second in the U. Billy Kidd , part Abenaki from Vermont , became the first American male to medal in alpine skiing in the Olympics, taking silver at age 20 in the slalom in the Winter Olympics at Innsbruck , Austria. Six years later at the World Championships, Kidd won the gold medal in the combined event and took the bronze medal in the slalom.
Traditional Native American music is almost entirely monophonic , but there are notable exceptions. Native American music often includes drumming or the playing of rattles or other percussion instruments but little other instrumentation. Flutes and whistles made of wood, cane, or bone are also played, generally by individuals, but in former times also by large ensembles as noted by Spanish conquistador de Soto.
The tuning of modern flutes is typically pentatonic. Some, such as John Trudell , have used music to comment on life in Native America. Other musicians such as R. Carlos Nakai , Joanne Shenandoah and Robert "Tree" Cody integrate traditional sounds with modern sounds in instrumental recordings, whereas the music by artist Charles Littleleaf is derived from ancestral heritage as well as nature. A variety of small and medium-sized recording companies offer an abundance of recent music by Native American performers young and old, ranging from pow-wow drum music to hard-driving rock-and-roll and rap.
In the International world of ballet dancing Maria Tallchief was considered America's first major prima ballerina , [] and was the first person of Native American descent to hold the rank. The most widely practiced public musical form among Native Americans in the United States is that of the pow-wow. At pow-wows, such as the annual Gathering of Nations in Albuquerque, New Mexico , members of drum groups sit in a circle around a large drum.
Drum groups play in unison while they sing in a native language and dancers in colorful regalia dance clockwise around the drum groups in the center. Familiar pow-wow songs include honor songs, intertribal songs, crow-hops, sneak-up songs, grass-dances, two-steps, welcome songs, going-home songs, and war songs. Most indigenous communities in the United States also maintain traditional songs and ceremonies, some of which are shared and practiced exclusively within the community. The Iroquois , living around the Great Lakes and extending east and north, used strings or belts called wampum that served a dual function: The keepers of the articles were seen as tribal dignitaries.
Pueblo peoples crafted impressive items associated with their religious ceremonies. Kachina dancers wore elaborately painted and decorated masks as they ritually impersonated various ancestral spirits. Superior weaving, embroidered decorations, and rich dyes characterized the textile arts. Both turquoise and shell jewelry were created, as were formalized pictorial arts. Navajo spirituality focused on the maintenance of a harmonious relationship with the spirit world, often achieved by ceremonial acts, usually incorporating sandpainting. For the Navajo the sand painting is not merely a representational object, but a dynamic spiritual entity with a life of its own, which helped the patient at the centre of the ceremony re-establish a connection with the life force.
These vivid, intricate, and colorful sand creations were erased at the end of the healing ceremony. The Native American arts and crafts industry brings in more than a billion in gross sales annually. Native American art comprises a major category in the world art collection. Native American contributions include pottery , paintings , jewellery , weavings , sculpture , basketry , and carvings. The integrity of certain Native American artworks is protected by the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of , that prohibits representation of art as Native American when it is not the product of an enrolled Native American artist.
Attorney Gail Sheffield and others claim that this law has had "the unintended consequence of sanctioning discrimination against Native Americans whose tribal affiliation was not officially recognized. The Inuit , or Eskimo , prepared and buried large amounts of dried meat and fish. Farmers in the Eastern Woodlands tended fields of maize with hoes and digging sticks, while their neighbors in the Southeast grew tobacco as well as food crops.
On the Plains, some tribes engaged in agriculture but also planned buffalo hunts in which herds were driven over bluffs. Dwellers of the Southwest deserts hunted small animals and gathered acorns to grind into flour with which they baked wafer-thin bread on top of heated stones.
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Some groups on the region's mesas developed irrigation techniques, and filled storehouses with grain as protection against the area's frequent droughts. In the early years, as these native peoples encountered European explorers and settlers and engaged in trade, they exchanged food, crafts, and furs for blankets, iron and steel implements, horses, trinkets, firearms, and alcoholic beverages.
Interracial relations between Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans is a complex issue that has been mostly neglected with "few in-depth studies on interracial relationships". One case is that of Gonzalo Guerrero , a European from Spain , who was shipwrecked along the Yucatan Peninsula , and fathered three Mestizo children with a Mayan noblewoman. European impact was immediate, widespread, and profound already during the early years of colonization and nationhood.
Europeans living among Native Americans were often called "white indians". They "lived in native communities for years, learned native languages fluently, attended native councils, and often fought alongside their native companions". Early contact was often charged with tension and emotion, but also had moments of friendship, cooperation, and intimacy.
Given the preponderance of men among the colonists in the early years, generally European men married or had relationships with Native American women. There was fear on both sides, as the different peoples realized how different their societies were. They were suspicious of cultures which they did not understand. Blackbird, wrote in his History of the Ottawa and Chippewa Indians of Michigan , that white settlers introduced some immoralities into Native American tribes. Many Indians suffered because the Europeans introduced alcohol and the whiskey trade resulted in alcoholism among the people, who were alcohol-intolerant.
The Ottawas and Chippewas were quite virtuous in their primitive state, as there were no illegitimate children reported in our old traditions. But very lately this evil came to exist among the Ottawas-so lately that the second case among the Ottawas of 'Arbor Croche' is yet living in And from that time this evil came to be quite frequent, for immorality has been introduced among these people by evil white persons who bring their vices into the tribes. For a Native American man to marry a white woman, he had to get consent of her parents, as long as "he can prove to support her as a white woman in a good home".
In the late 19th century, three European-American middle-class women teachers at Hampton Institute married Native American men whom they had met as students. As European-American women started working independently at missions and Indian schools in the western states, there were more opportunities for their meeting and developing relationships with Native American men. For instance, Charles Eastman , a man of European and Lakota descent whose father sent both his sons to Dartmouth College , got his medical degree at Boston University and returned to the West to practice.
He married Elaine Goodale , whom he met in South Dakota. He was the grandson of Seth Eastman , a military officer from Maine, and a chief's daughter. Goodale was a young European-American teacher from Massachusetts and a reformer, who was appointed as the U. They had six children together.
The majority of Native American tribes did practice some form of slavery before the European introduction of African slavery into North America, but none exploited slave labor on a large scale. Most Native American tribes did not barter captives in the pre-colonial era, although they sometimes exchanged enslaved individuals with other tribes in peace gestures or in exchange for their own members. Native Americans began selling war captives to Europeans rather than integrating them into their own societies as they had done before. As the demand for labor in the West Indies grew with the cultivation of sugar cane , Europeans enslaved Native Americans for the Thirteen Colonies , and some were exported to the "sugar islands".
The British settlers, especially those in the southern colonies, purchased or captured Native Americans to use as forced labor in cultivating tobacco, rice, and indigo. Accurate records of the numbers enslaved do not exist because vital statistics and census reports were at best infrequent. Scholars estimate tens to hundreds of thousands of Native Americans may have been enslaved by the Europeans, being sold by Native Americans themselves or Europeans. The Virginia General Assembly defined some terms of slavery in All servants imported and brought into the Country All Negro, mulatto and Indian slaves within this dominion If any slave resists his master The slave trade of Native Americans lasted only until around It gave rise to a series of devastating wars among the tribes, including the Yamasee War.
The Indian Wars of the early 18th century, combined with the increasing importation of African slaves, effectively ended the Native American slave trade by Colonists found that Native American slaves could easily escape, as they knew the country. The wars cost the lives of numerous colonial slave traders and disrupted their early societies. The remaining Native American groups banded together to face the Europeans from a position of strength. Many surviving Native American peoples of the southeast strengthened their loose coalitions of language groups and joined confederacies such as the Choctaw , the Creek , and the Catawba for protection.
Even after the Indian Slave Trade ended in the enslavement of Native Americans continued in the west, and also in the Southern states mostly through kidnappings. Native American women were at risk for rape whether they were enslaved or not; during the early colonial years, settlers were disproportionately male.
They turned to Native women for sexual relationships. African and Native Americans have interacted for centuries. The earliest record of Native American and African contact occurred in April , when Spanish colonists transported the first Africans to Hispaniola to serve as slaves. Sometimes Native Americans resented the presence of African Americans. The carrying of Negroes among the Indians has all along been thought detrimental, as an intimacy ought to be avoided.
Europeans considered both races inferior and made efforts to make both Native Americans and Africans enemies. They worked together, lived together in communal quarters, produced collective recipes for food, shared herbal remedies, myths and legends, and in the end they intermarried. In the 18th century, many Native American women married freed or runaway African men due to a decrease in the population of men in Native American villages.
While numerous tribes used captive enemies as servants and slaves, they also often adopted younger captives into their tribes to replace members who had died. In the Southeast, a few Native American tribes began to adopt a slavery system similar to that of the American colonists, buying African American slaves, especially the Cherokee , Choctaw , and Creek. In the Census, nearly 3 million people indicated that their race was Native American including Alaska Native.
This phenomenon has been dubbed the "Cherokee Syndrome". Many tribes, especially those in the Eastern United States , are primarily made up of individuals with an unambiguous Native American identity , despite being predominantly of European ancestry. Historically, numerous Native Americans assimilated into colonial and later American society , e. In many cases, this process occurred through forced assimilation of children sent off to special boarding schools far from their families.
Those who could pass for white had the advantage of white privilege [] Today, after generations of racial whitening through hypergamy , many Native Americans are visually indistinguishable from White Americans , unlike mestizos in the United States , who may in fact have little or no non-indigenous ancestry. Native Americans are more likely than any other racial group to practice racial exogamy , resulting in an ever-declining proportion of indigenous blood among those who claim a Native American identity.
Disenrollment has become a contentious issue in Native American reservation politics. Intertribal mixing was common among many Native American tribes prior to European contact, as they would adopt captives taken in warfare. Individuals often had ancestry from more than one tribe, particularly after tribes lost so many members from disease in the colonial era and after. A number of tribes traditionally adopted captives into their group to replace members who had been captured or killed in battle.
Such captives were from rival tribes and later were taken from raids on European settlements. Some tribes also sheltered or adopted white traders and runaway slaves, and others owned slaves of their own. Tribes with long trading histories with Europeans show a higher rate of European admixture, reflecting years of intermarriage between Native American women and European men, often seen as advantageous to both sides. In recent years, genetic genealogists have been able to determine the proportion of Native American ancestry carried by the African-American population.
The literary and history scholar Henry Louis Gates, Jr. A greater percentage could have a smaller proportion of Indian ancestry, but their conclusions show that popular estimates of Native American admixture may have been too high.