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Write a customer review. Amazon Giveaway allows you to run promotional giveaways in order to create buzz, reward your audience, and attract new followers and customers. Learn more about Amazon Giveaway. Set up a giveaway. There's a problem loading this menu right now. Learn more about Amazon Prime. For example, when translating from a ST to TT where the ST is full of collocations, proverbs, and sayings, the options for rendering these set expressions in the TT are very limited.
Thus, any TT produced from an ST would be restricted in a similar fashion, with greater restrictions at the phonemic and grammatical levels, and lesser restrictions at the lexical and discourse levels. In contrast, a faithful translation would yield a TT that is closer to the sound shapes, grammatical patterns, and collocations of the SL.
These types of translations are general targets and not exact outcomes. The best way to understand these five types of relationships between the source and target is through a simple set of examples. Note the following example of the five types of translation based on the following Russian passage: To us such help is not necessary.
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This is bear service. Such help is not needed by us. It is the same as if a bear would help. What you propose is pointless. Once we get to the level of faithful translation the reader has a good idea about the semantics of the ST, but there is no linear movement to a closer equivalence to the ST in the following three TT; rather, they move toward the TL is non-linear ways. For example, the use of contractions occurs in three of the translations. Russian does not have grammatical contractions of this nature, and the use of contractions in English could signal for many speakers a variety of phenomena, including oral, colloquial presentations, spoken or written dialogue, but not formal written prose.
The goal of minimizing differences between the ST and TT is more realistic than its alternative, maximizing sameness As Hervey and Higgins eloquently state It is a loss of textual effects. Further, since these effects cannot be quantified, neither can the loss. This is why one can sometimes go on infinitely translating the same text and never be completely satisfied. Parameters of loss in translating from Russian into English As we discussed above, the varying degrees of freedom in the hierarchically given levels of human language are complex, non-linear, and inevitable.
This is Preliminaries to translation as a product 13 true within one language which is always a multiplicity of speakers, hearers, registers, dialects, goals of the utterance, cultural contexts , and even more so as we move between different languages. There are specific structural features of Russian grammar, morphology, and syntax that the translator must grapple with when translating any kind of text.
These features are extremely prevalent, regardless of genre, and understanding these constructions is fundamental to producing successful translation texts. More information on specific morphological and grammatical translation issues is discussed in Chapter 7. The importance of word formation in the semantics of CSR One of the most common problems in translation will be encountered at the level of word formation.
There are many fewer roots in Russian across parts of speech than one finds in English. This is the result of the rich and productive wordformative processes that define the structure of the Russian language. In many instances, a single Russian lexical form will have multiple and different English equivalents. Note the following examples: There will be significant differences in terms of the logical case required between Russian and English, as well as more specific semantic differences associated with specific cases.
Word order Russian, as a typical Indo-European case language, allows for greater flexibility in syntactic ordering than English, but requires greater specificity in the relationship between verbal predicates. We should tell them that we cannot come. We owe them a thousand euros. Our colleague female is 45 years old. Our colleague female is about 45 years old. Grammatical gender All CSR nouns, both declinable and indeclinable, are marked for one of three genders: The relationship between declension and gender for declinable nouns is as follows: In addition to gender, all CSR declinable nouns are marked for case and number.
There is no gender signaled in the plural. Not all case forms provide distinct desinences for each of the declensions or genders cf. All adjectives in Russian must agree with the head noun of the phrase in gender, case, and number. In the case of epicene nouns, both masculine and feminine agreement gender is allowed. In some cases, the masculine agreement form will be strongly preferred even with epicene nouns, e. Indeclinable nouns are always neuter and do not give case or number. There are a few indeclinable nouns that are both masculine and neuter in colloquial standard Russian CSCR , namely: Verbs show grammatical gender only in the past tense form along with number.
All non-past conjugated verb forms signal number and person. Participles are also referred to as deverbalized adjectives and behave grammatically as adjectives.
The clearest example of this similarity is found in the tension of usage between the accusative and genitive cases after negated verbs. He is afraid of Lena. He is afraid of the dark. Impersonal constructions Impersonal constructions, where the logical subject, if given at all, is given in the dative case, and verbal agreement is in the neuter third person singular form, are an important phenomenon of sentence-level Russian discourse.
The major categories in which impersonal constructions abound are given below. He is 15 years old. Irina turned 23 yesterday. You are a cold, unfeeling person. Lena is nauseous feels like throwing up. Her ears stopped up. Everything went dark, and Sasha passed out. Father has a ringing in his ears. Sara has broken out in a fever. Can I help you? Do you need some help? Can I get you a cab? Should I order you a cab? Would you like some more food? How about going to the movies on Saturday?
Read the following examples carefully and select the example that best corresponds to the following contexts: It is an expression used by Krushchev relatively frequently, including in his meeting with Nixon at Sokolniki in , during his visit to the USA, and during a speech at the United Nations Assembly on 25 September The moral of this story is multifaceted: We continue the topic of translation loss and equivalence by working with two sets of texts given below that utilize, first prefixed verbs and verbal adverbs, and second, a large number of examples of one prefix with multiple roots.
Translate each text into English and explain what types of transpositions of verbs, deverbalized adjectives and verbal adverbs were required in moving from the ST to TT. The first excerpt is from D. What strategies are necessary to adequately render verbal aspect in the TT? Discuss the lexical changes required in generating the TT. Preliminaries to translation as a product 19 4. Explain the use of names in the Russian ST, what information they provide about the relationships between the speakers; give multiple possible translation options for these names in the TT and explain what types of loss are present.
Translate the following poem by M. Cvetaeva dedicated to B. Pasternak, 24 March Do not be concerned with preserving the sound or rhythmic textual levels; rather, focus on content. The TT is from the collection, Marina Tsvetaeva: Is it possible in all cases?
Critique a professional TT of this poem. Identify cases of translation loss and the degree of loss. What attempts are made in the TT to preserve the structure of the ST? Preliminaries to translation as a product 21 Practical 2. In the following ST, 1 point out the aspects of the text that the grammatical structure of Russian requires and then 2 discuss how your TT will deal with each of these ST-based structures.
The text is from S.
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The third text is a translation of the lyrical text into English TT2. Explain the changes in meaning, style, grammar, and lexicon from ST1 to ST2. Identify specific types of loss in each of these categories. How would you characterize the product given in TT2? Propose alternative translations for at least five passages within TT2.
Do a back-translation of your own TT2 see 2 and analyze the degree of success in minimizing difference between your translation and the TT2 already given. Pushkin, Evgenij Onegin, Roman v stixax ; Moscow: Detskaja literatura, , ch. Oxford University Press, , —38, trans. We never had expected such splendid company, and dancing to a band! We seldom see parties such as this one.
So tasteful, so well planned! Not for years have we seen such a party; everyone should enjoy it while they can! We have never been more surprised! Here in the country we live in seclusion; festive occasions and dancing are rare. Hunting is really our only diversion; makes a nice change from the hound and the hare. She must find a husband. Not for years have we seen such a party. This is truly perfection! Hail to music, hail to song! Hail to pleasure, to feasting and dancing!
Evaluation of translation product 1. Using CAM and the questions generated at the beginning of this chapter pages 9—10 , select three questions from the list of 12 sample questions, and analyze each of the assignments in Chapter 2 based on those criteria. Be sure to contextualize these points within the parameters of SL or TL preferences that predominate in the TT for each exercise. This exercise could be divided up so that each student works on no more than two texts. Most definitions of human language state that the smallest unit of language is the phoneme, which is the minimum distinctive unit of speech sound, a bundle of distinctive features e.
Because human language is generally learned through the aural medium initially, preference in definitions of language is given to speech sound. However, it is also acknowledged that the minimum distinctive unit of written language is the grapheme. If we shift our focus for a moment to written language, then it would be useful to note that there are many different alternative graphic systems representing languages of the world. The most common types of writing systems are: In the case of alphabets, which represents the writing systems of both Russian and English, there is a complex relationship between the individual graphemes and the phonemes of the language.
The relationship between alphabet letter and phonemic sound in Russian is closer than the relationship found in the English language, but it is nevertheless not one-to-one. Contemporary Serbian and Croatian are examples of languages with one-to-one relationships between spelling and pronunciation. No spell checks needed here. The closer the relationship between letter and sound, the more accessible the writing system is to the average first language L1 learner, or even second language L2 learner, starting to read for the first time. One of the most striking differences between Russian and English is the Cyrillic alphabet versus the Latin alphabet used for these two languages respectively.
In fact, many learners are concerned that acquiring the Cyrillic alphabet can be a very difficult task and on this basis alone may prefer to initiate acquisition of a European language that uses a similar alphabet to English. The Cyrillic alphabet, named after one of the two Macedonian Greek monks who brought a 28 Phonological and graphic issues written script to the ancient Slavs — Cyril and Methodius — was not the original alphabet of the ninth century; rather, the first alphabet of the language of the ancient Slavs often called Old Church Slavonic, a South Slavic recension was the Glagolitic alphabet.
Cyrillic shares many common traits with the Greek alphabet, and also includes possible borrowings from Hebrew. On occasion, it is still necessary for scholars and translators to deal with texts written in the old orthography, and for this purpose, we will include examples in the exercises in this chapter. In the post-Soviet era, the use of the hard sign in word-final position has returned in some publications and advertisements. Different transliteration systems Any attempt to render Russian-based names or toponyms in English requires the use of one of three common transliteration systems see table below.
Below is an example of each system with commentary. For the purposes of this book, the authors will use system III in all instances except where the English spelling of Russian words has been conventionalized for example Tchaikovsky, Khruschev, Tolstoy, and others. System I is used primarily by the popular press in reference to proper nouns and toponyms.
Note that certain combinations of letters may also show variation in transliteration — see the table below. For a thorough discussion of these transliteration systems, see J. University of Wisconsin Press, This phenomenon was quite common in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, especially with regard to French, Latin, German, and English. In fact, the nineteenthcentury Russian aristocracy was often more literate in French than in Russian. In the twenty-first century, it has become common to find hybrid textual forms, especially book titles, and a mixture of alphabets in contemporary literature and media e.
Lexical borrowings In the post-Soviet period, the number of lexical borrowings entering the Russian language has dramatically increased in comparison to the Soviet period. According to Verbickaja These borrowings are most heavily represented in specialized vocabulary of technological development and economics, or they are restricted stylistically in many cases to the language of advertisement and media. Note that the number of registered lexical borrowings for the period —85 totals 9, Given the large number of recent borrowings, it is important to note that their semantic fields are, in many cases, relatively unstable and the range of available meanings may present special problems in translation.
Abbreviations While many linguists of the early twentieth century argued that the broad use of abbreviations in Russian was due to the Soviet take-over of Imperial Russia, this phenomenon continues to be very vibrant in the post-Soviet period. Translators will often have to deal with abbreviations, and there are numerous reference sources that exist to make this task less onerous — cf.
Morphological innovations The result of languages in contact is always change. This is not only true in the case of lexical borrowings and semantic shifts, but also in terms of the fundamental Phonological and graphic issues 31 morphology of the language. One of the more interesting examples of morphological shifts due to borrowing is changes in declension and grammatical gender of some forms. While it is certainly true of all Indo-European languages with grammatical gender that those genders may shift over time, it is important to be aware of some of the specific instances of gender shifts. In CSR, there are several areas where gender shifts are possible, including: A thorough discussion of the importance of grammatical and morphological categories in translation can be found in Chapter 7.
Poetry and Russian versification In order to focus on the tension that can occur in any text between the six factors of our communicative act model CAM , a close look at poetry is a useful exercise. It is in the poetic text that the tension between the code and the message becomes one of the dominants of the genre. In poetic texts, special attention toward the sound structure of the text is often a prerequisite for understanding many standard forms of versification. Aspects of the structural categories given by sound shape of language include a series of well-known phenomena: We will briefly review some of these structural principles that are central to Russian versification, and provide examples of each type.
To prove the point, note the following examples of what are typically considered onomatopoeic forms in CSR and see if the meanings are obvious: An example from I. Hervey and Higgens In Russian, intonational patterns are closely tied both to the tonic syllable of the word, as well as the sentential utterance or phrase itself.
Russian intonations in speech may demonstrate leaps at the level of a tonic fifth in questions the same as going from C to G within one octave , and all declarative sentences in Russian demonstrate a falling intonation on the tonic syllable of the key word in the sentence. For examples of Russian writers and poets reading their own work, see http: Phonological and graphic issues 33 Practical 3.
Northwestern University Press, , 74—5. Poems 2 and 3: Ardis, , —7. ST from Marina Tsvetaeva, Milestones: A Bilingual Edition, Carcanet Press Ltd, , Literal translation of this poem provided by Bernard Comrie. TT2 from Marina Tsvetaeva, Milestones: Do the following for each of the four poems given below.
Read the ST carefully and identify any phonological or prosodic features that are important to generating the TT. Discuss which ones are possible to render in the TT and which ones may be difficult to preserve. Compare the TT with the ST.
What, if any, of the phonological and prosodic features were preserved in the TT? What is your evaluation of the success of the TT? What suggestions do you have for improving the TT? Implement them into a new TT. Identify any other formal aspects of the structure of individual sounds, words or phrases that are significant in generating the TT from the ST. TT Crimson, bright clustered, The rowan waxed warm.
Falling leaves fluttered, And I was born. Belfries competed In hundredfold chimes. Feast of Saint John the Divine. She went there To sleep — but sleep escapes her even there. She lies on the bottom, with silt. And her last wreath Is awash on a log in the stream. TT You who loved me with the falsehood Of truth — and with the truth of falsehood; Who loved me to the limits Of the possible!
You who loved me longer Than Time — one sweep of an arm! You no longer love me: These five words are the truth. TT 1 Your name is a — bird in my hand a piece of — ice on the tongue one single movement of the lips. Your name — how impossible, it is a kiss in the eyes on motionless eyelashes, chill and sweet. Your name is a kiss of snow a gulp of icy spring water, blue as a dove.
About your name is: Phonological and graphic issues 37 TT 2 Your name — a bird cupped in the palm, Your name — a sliver of ice on the tongue. One single movement of the lips. Your name — five letters — simply this. A ball in flight snapped up in its path, A silver tinkling bell in the mouth. A stone case into a placid pond Echoes your name with its sobbing sound.
In the light clatter of nighttime hooves Your wondrous name comes thundering through. And against our temples it may knock With the vibrant snap of a rifle cock. A sky-blue gulp from an ice-cold stream. Exercise with pre orthography poem by M. The Demesne of the Swans: A bilingual edition, including the definitive version of the Russian text, established by the editor, with introduction, notes, commentaries, and translated for the first time into English by Robin Kemball Ann Arbor: Ardis, , —1. Transliterate the short poetic text from Old Orthography to contemporary standard Russian orthography.
Do the changes affect the phonological aspects of the text? If so, in what way? Compare the TT and the ST. What changes would you suggest to improve the TT? Do your changes enhance the phonological and prosodic characteristics of the ST? What thought does it spare for Genghis Khan — or the Golden Horde! I have two enemies in this world, Twins, inextricably interrelated: Ache of the hungry — and glut of the sated! Return to the final poem in Practical 3. What part of the text requires separate extra-textual commentary in order to be understood? There are two versions of the TT provided.
Russian Translation: Theory and Practice
Compare the two versions of the TT, and analyze the strengths and weaknesses of both. Exercise with spoken texts web addresses: Listen to the following poems by Anna Axmatova, recorded by the poet herself in Transcribe the text of the poems and attempt to capture the formal graphic structure of the poem as you imagine it looks in print. Discuss any aspects of the TT and ST that converge or diverge formally and semantically. Discuss the differences in intonational structures that are found in the reading of poetry and in standard contemporary spoken Russian. Exercise with sung texts web addresses: Listen to the following songs based on a poem by Bulat Okudzhava.
Attempt to transcribe the text directly from the song. You can then compare your transcription with a printed text of the song. Phonological and graphic issues 39 2. Provide a TT that reflects the formal and semantic qualities of the ST in its musical version. Identify aspects of the process that must be dealt with initially in order to begin the process of generating the TT in English.
Compare your TT with a published version of the text and analyze those aspects of the text that differ in each version, evaluate those differences and produce a revised TT. Numerals and graphics The following article has a series of statistics and figures about car accidents and resulting deaths as a result of drunk drivers. What is unique about how numerals are expressed in Russian texts? Write out all of the abbreviations given in the ST and explain why some are defined within the text and others are not.
Chapter 4 Cultural issues in translation and CAM 2 The comprehension of any communication act requires some form of translation, whether it be intralingual, interlingual, or intersemiotic. If we return to our communication act model CAM for a moment, we recall that we must work with a minimum of six dynamic factors in each speech act Chapters 1 and 2.
The first step in converting CAM into a model of cultural transposition is to double each of the minimum six factors CAM2. Thus, we find that we have at least TWO authors, audiences, contexts, codes, messages, and channels from the very beginning. This revised communication act model will serve as the starting point for outlining strategic categories in cultural transposition from source to target. Furthermore, CAM2 concretizes the importance of modeling of texts as dynamic, not static, entities and the fact that there are never single speech acts — only multiple sets of speech acts, which yield texts.
The CAM2 model given here reinforces the model of cultural transposition given in Hervey and Higgins The ST is impossible to duplicate without loss at one or more linguistic levels. When the translator chooses to focus primarily on doubling the single factor of code, the result is a TT defined by a source-culture bias. However, when the 42 Cultural issues in translation and CAM2 translator folds in all six of the doubled factors, the result is a TT that is maximally oriented toward the target culture. Note the following correlations, imagining them as points on a continuum: The hierarchy of features i.
We have included this discussion to reiterate the multifaceted array of factors that the translator must take into account. Not only does the translator have to be thoughtful about what features he or she selects for the process of creating the TT, but the quality of the TT product changes dramatically depending on 1 which features are selected as primary and 2 in what combinations they occur.
Chapter 6 will look specifically at Skopos theory and impact on the formation of the TT product. Can there be a text that is devoid of cultural information? The current discussion demonstrates that the answer is no. All linguistic texts carry cultural information. Some texts may be more transparent with little or no compensatory labor on the part of the translator, others will become comprehensible as a TT only after extensive extra- or co-textual compensation of cultural knowledge by the translator.
This topic is not without controversy. In fact, in many of the international proficiency testing modules, one of the stated goals is to create tests in speaking, reading, listening comprehension, grammar, and writing that have a minimum amount of cultural information. This principle of testing seems misguided at best. Language and culture are inextricably connected both in the abstract and in terms of real space—time.
The translator has to be expert in the language and culture of both the source and the target. Cultural issues in translation and CAM2 43 — How are you? Among others, some of the most frequent responses include: In English, this question may be rhetorical, but it hardly would be in Russian. In order to translate this very simple question into Russian, it is extremely helpful if one has the answer already provided in the text. Having the answer provides the key to formulating the question. Possible translations of the initial question include: Frequent pragmatically appropriate responses include: The fundamental point given in these examples is that in Russian a verbal greeting of this sort is NOT generally rhetorical and requires a verbal response.
Simply stated, Russian tends to be 44 Cultural issues in translation and CAM2 more conservative in expressing emotion in conversation in comparison to English. There are several highly frequent types of speech acts where one must be careful not to overdo it. Note the following contexts: Given the popularity of the English phrase itself in pop culture, music, and film, younger Russians are beginning to translate the phrase back into Russian and hence, use the words more frequently than speakers ten or more years older.
Note the following English expressions and their appropriate Russian translations: Note the following Russian expressions and their appropriate English translations: The Russian equivalent that is often evoked includes the following: However, all of these related forms in Russian refer to excitement that is of a sexual nature or loss of control, thus changing the meaning significantly from the generic English sense. Emotive language and the media One of the more striking differences in Russian and English media style is found in the degree of irony and sarcasm that one finds in the Russian press.
Read the passage carefully and identify in the text instances of ironic language. Generate two different versions of the TT — one that preserves the irony and a second that is in a more neutral style. What characteristics of the ST are the most important to preserve in the TT?
This article gives an example of the difficulties of interpreting for heads of state. How does interpreting differ from translation as a general process? Cultural issues in translation and CAM2 47 Practical 4. The following excerpts are examples of Russian anecdotes oral humor. Translate the texts into English. What aspects of translation loss in the TT most directly affect the humorous nature of the ST?
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What cultural knowledge is required for the audience to understand the humor? Is the humor in these examples more formally based sound, prosody or semantically given? Note any instances where the use of capital letters in the TT is different than the ST. Identify jokes that use current events —8 and explain the socio-cultural context and how it contributes to the humor.
Identify which anecdotes given below are the least tied to specific Russian cultural events. Which anecdotes are based in realia relevant to multiple cultural spaces and what role does this play in translating humor? Pay special attention to how English place names are rendered in the text, including whether they are transliterated or translated. Are there any unusual grammatical examples in this article? What are some of the discourse markers evident in such an oral interview? Would these markers appear in printed narrative texts as well? Identify any specialized musical vocabulary in the ST.
In this text, Lotman tackles the problem of why knowledge of more than one culture is a valuable undertaking. What is the basis of the ST — a written or oral text?
What cues in the text or missing from the text helped you to make your choice? How would you translate the title of the volume itself? Chapter 5 Compensation and semantic shifts To complement our approach in achieving adequate cultural transposition in the production of the TT, we have implemented various strategies using CAM and CAM2 within the overriding goal of minimizing difference as we proceed from ST to TT. We understand that all speech acts, whether oral or written, are always a conglomerate of factors and functions that occur simultaneously within the utterance, and may shift in terms of their relationship to each other and to the overall speech act itself.
The fact that we attempt to single out specific minimal factors of speech acts is a tool to help manage the complexities of the translation process and the creation of a translation product. We have already seen that it is often necessary to add information to the TT that was not explicitly given in the ST.
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In some instances, our compensation strategies will be code-based changes, ranging from the simplest phonological level and continuing through the morphological, lexical, syntactic and higher discourse levels. In the exercises below, we will look specifically at contextual compensation and textual compensation.
In the case of contextual compensation, the additional information may not even appear in the TT itself, but be relegated to footnotes, introductions and other commentaries accompanying the TT. Textual compensation is a component of the TT, central to the TT product itself. Who are Jefim Etkind and Sergej Jurskij? What is their relationship?
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What textual clues help you approximate the time frame of the event described in the ST? What is the general historical context that frames this short narrative? How would you characterize the style and register of the ST? Dr Jefim Etkind was one of the most famous Russian philologists of his day. Before he was forced to leave the Soviet Union in for supporting the Leningrad poet Josef Brodsky who was on trial for anti-Soviet activity, he was a distinguished faculty member and professor at the Hertzen Institute in then Leningrad.
Etkind immigrated to France and in was awarded an additional doctorate degree at the Sorbonne in arts and literature. Etkind was stripped of all of his degrees and regalia by the Soviet authorities and forced to leave the country because of his friendship with Josef Brodsky. In parallel, Jurskij was forced to leave Leningrad and move to Moscow in order to continue to perform in the theatre because of his friendship with Etkind. All three — Brodsky, Etkind, and Jurskij — prospered in their new environments. Brodsky passed away in and Etkind in Jurskij continues to perform in film and theatre to the present day.
Zaxarov, , 14— How does each of the two translations preserve the structural and sound repetitions given in the ST? Pay special attention to the variety of verbal tenses available in the TT. How would you translate the title? Compensation and semantic shifts 55 4. To what literary genre would you attribute the ST and why?
He was sitting in some bushes, and a militiaman went past the bushes. Kalugin woke up, scratched his mouth, and fell asleep again, and again he dreamed a dream. He was walking past some bushes, and in the bushes a militiaman was sitting and hiding. Kalugin woke up, put a newspaper under his head so as not to make the pillow wet with his slobberings, and fell asleep again, and again he dreamed a dream.
He was sitting in some bushes, and a militiaman was walking past the bushes. He fell asleep and again he had a dream. He was walking past some bushes, and a militiaman was sitting in the bushes. At that point Kalugin woke up and decided to sleep no more, but immediately he fell asleep and had a dream. He was sitting behind a militiaman, and bushes were walking past. Kalugin shouted and turned over in his bed, but he was no longer able to wake up.
Kalugin slept for four days and nights in a row, and the fifth day he woke up so thin that he had to tie his boots to his feet with twine so that they would not keep falling off. The Sanitary Commission inspected the apartment house and saw Kalugin, and declared him to be unsanitary and good for nothing, and ordered the apartment cooperative to throw Kalugin out with the trash. They folded Kalugin in two and threw him out with the trash. The Soviet Union of the s is often characterized as one of the most violent non-war periods of the twentieth century.
The climate of fear was high, and Russian writers were often among the victims of these processes. According to official information, Xarms was arrested in and perished in a prison hospital in Novosibirsk in Xarms was considered to be the central Russian contributor to the genre of Surrealism of his day. The following ST is information provided on baby powder produced and sold in the Russian Federation. Translate the entire text into English.
Note the use of non-Russian terms in the Russian text. Why do you think this occurs? Compensation and semantic shifts 57 3. Pay special attention to all abbreviations. You are not expected to know these abbreviations. What, however, do you think would be the most efficient way to decipher the abbreviations? Compare a typical text accompanying baby powder sold in the United States, given below, with the Russian ST given in Practical 5. What are the differences in the types of information required on the bottle between the USA and Russian Federation?
Select five passages from the English ST and translate them into Russian. Be sure to include at least one passage that has obvious overlap from the Russian and English source texts. Friction is caused by clothes rubbing against skin and folds of skin rubbing against each other. Skin is left feeling cool and comfortable. For you, use every day to help feel soft, fresh, and comfortable. Shake powder into your hand and smooth onto skin. Store in a cool dry place. For external use only. Keep out of reach of children.
Close tightly after use. Do not use on broken skin. Avoid contact with eyes. Do not use if quality seal is broken. Translate the following excerpt from the St Petersburg online newspaper, Fontanka. Pay special attention to the title of the article and the first subheading. Practicals based on texts related to 5. Read the ST carefully and then compare it with the TT below. The corresponding TT passage is taken from the volume: Andrew Bromfield New York: Things to be done. This made everything that he was saying extremely ambiguous, because it was one thing if Lyubochka was late, but if Rationalization Engineer Lyubov Grigorievna Suxhoruchko was late, that was another thing altogether.
How many rationalization proposals are there? For the big shears. For cutting the tin sheets. The more we know about the factors and functions of the ST, the more likely we will be successful in negotiating through the translation process in order to achieve a viable TT. In Chapter 2, we mentioned the term genre in connection with the CAM model, namely as one of the questions that arises in part in conjunction with the channel, but also overlapping to some degree with all of the remaining five factors, including specific authorial goals, the target audience, the cultural context intended and extended , the degree of aesthetics defined by the text, and code-based parameters of the text.
Essentially, the question of genre can be encountered in any of the six factors of the ST and this means that all texts may be potentially defined in terms of one or more genres, resulting in many potential hybrid genres. Skopos theory and text-type Functional theories of translation, which have moved the field forward by evaluating both processes and products, have made an important contribution to the study of translation.
In this chapter, we will consider two of the major contributors to skopos theory — Katharina Reiss and Hans Vermeer This theory includes the necessary methodologies and strategies to derive a target text called the translatum. There are several constraints that 1 must be applied in a specific order, 2 require coherency of the TT, and 3 articulate the central role of the translator. These three fundamental categories give rise to a large number of potential realizations of text type and their resulting relationship to translation methods see Munday It is important to note that Reiss recognizes hybrid texts and speaks about multiple functions being realized within a single text, but generally with one being dominant Reiss Reiss introduces a fourth text type, audio-medial, in which language is complemented with additional semiotic systems.
We will consider other contributions to genre in later chapters when we analyze more closely discourse and discourse-based approaches to translation. Our proposal for defining genre within the current work is a bi-level system that takes into consideration many of the points found in Jakobson, Lotman, Reiss, and Vermeer. For additional reading on genre, we suggest Lotman ; Eco ; and House In addition to the first two textual issues raised above, we will briefly outline three basic genres, or types of texts, to assist in the translation process.
There are multiple 64 Textual genre, text types, and translation theories of genre that are not considered in this chapter. Clearly, the number of potential genres could be limitless. Our goal, rather, is to create a rubric that will facilitate the translation process without making it unnecessarily awkward or difficult. A text may be defined by more than one genre. For the purposes of this work, we will treat literary genre as one general category, containing both poetry and prose fiction texts.
Furthermore, it is important to keep in mind an important distinction that Frye defines concerning how these genre types are made from each other: Poetry can only be made out of other poems; novels out of other novels. Literature shapes itself, and is not shaped externally: The use of literary texts in teaching Russian translation is motivated by several factors, including the following: Textual genre, text types, and translation 65 News and advertising genre Publications in which the major goal is to share information make up the bulk of our second genre.
These texts, even when they claim to be objective reporting, are often colored with rhetorical strategies to convince the audience that the information being conveyed is true and authentic. These first two genre types share an important characteristic: It is the crossing over from nonfiction to fiction that often causes serious problems for media sources across the globe. An additional problem of current Russian media is a result of the democratic process. In the Soviet period, the mass media were tightly controlled by the government and the language of the press was stylistically well-defined.
Journalists were trained in a uniform college-based curriculum, a fact that also contributed to the homogeneity of style seen in the printed media. Some of the past standards of print media have taken a hit across the globe, and Russia is no exception. In twenty-firstcentury Russia, a degree in journalism is hardly a prerequisite for work in the media, proof readers are no longer as careful as they were in the past, and the result is a good deal of poor writing especially on the internet and poor editing, resulting in texts that are often awkward and not without typographic errors. Academic and scientific genre Publications in which the central goal is to further a body of knowledge on a particular subject or in a particular discipline or field are the essence of our third genre.
These texts are most often the result of research and scholarship, and they may vary dramatically, for example, according to content, style, and length. Practical exercises devoted to academic and scientific texts are found in Chapter Read carefully the following excerpt from chapter 3 of E. Once you have read the ST, make notes about how you would proceed in producing a TT of the same genre.
Apply the bi-level distinctions given above. Identify phenomena at the grammatical, lexical, and discourse levels that present challenges in producing the TT. Evaluate each TT for strengths and weaknesses, and select the TT that best meets the following purposes: Comment on each of the chapter titles in the ST and the five TTs. Which one s do you prefer and why? If none, create your own version of the title and headings for this passage. TT 1 We, trans. Gregory Zilboorg New York: I feel almost as if you may thing I want simply to mock you and with a very serious face try to relate absolute nonsense to you.
But first I am incapable of jesting, for in every joke a lie has its hidden function. And second, the Textual genre, text types, and translation 67 science of the United State contends that the life of the ancients was exactly what I am describing, and the science of the United State does not make mistakes!
Yet how could they have State logic, since they lived in a condition of freedom like beasts, like apes, like herds? What could one expect of them, since even in our day one hears from time to time, coming from the bottom, the primitive depths, the echo of the apes? Fortunately, it happens only from time to time, very seldom. Happily, it is only a case of small parts breaking; these may easily be repaired without stopping the eternal great march of the whole machine. And in order to eliminate a broken peg we have the skillful heavy hand of the Well-Doer, we have the experienced eyes of the Guardians … By the way, I just thought of that Number whom I met yesterday, the double-curved one like the letter S; I think I have seen him several times coming out of the Bureau of Guardians.
TT 2 We, trans. From Gorki to Pasternak New York: A Table of Commandments. This is so laughable, so incredible that, after having written the above, I am apprehensive: What if you should suddenly get the notion that I am simply intent upon making cruel sport of you and, with a serious air, am telling you utterly unmitigated bosh.
But, first of all, I am incapable of jesting, inasmuch as the covert functioning of falsehood is a component of every jest, and secondly, Science in The One State affirms that the life of the ancients was precisely as I have described it — and Science in The One State is infallible. And besides, where was any logic of government to come from at that time, when people were living in a state of freedom — i. What could one demand of them, when even in our time one hears at rare intervals a wild simian echo issuing from the shaggy depths, from somewhere close to the very bottom?
Fortunately, only at rare intervals. And, fortunately, we have only the unimportant failures of small parts — it is easy to repair them without stopping the grand, eternal progress of the whole Machine. And in order to throw out the warped bolt we have the skillful heavy hand of The Benefactor, we have the experienced eyes of the Guardians. Yes, by the way — I have just thought of something: Samuel Cioran, in Worlds Apart: Overlook Duckworth, Record 3 Synopsis: What if suddenly you should think that I simply wish to have my joke at your expense and I am relating the most utter rubbish with a serious face.
But first of all: I am not capable of jokes — falsehood is a secret function that enters into every joke; and secondly: And where would any state logic be forthcoming in those times when people lived in a condition of freedom, i. What could one demand of them if even in our time — from somewhere at the bottom, out of the shaggy depths, — a wild, apelike echo can still be infrequently heard?
Fortunately — only infrequently. Fortunately — this is only a minor breakdown in details: And for the disposal of the twisted bolt — we have the skillful, heavy hand of the Benefactor, we have the experienced eyes of the Guardians. Yes, by the way, now I remember: TT 4 We, trans. Clarence Brown New York: Besides, where could any governmental logic have come from, anyway, when people lived in the condition known as freedom — that is, like beasts, monkeys, cattle?
What could you have expected from them, if even in our day you can still very occasionally hear coming up from the bottom, from the hairy depths, a wild, ape-like echo? Only now and again, fortunately. And in order to discard some bolt that has gotten bent, we have the heavy, skillful hand of the Benefactor, we have the experienced eye of the Guardians. Which, now I think of it, reminds me about that Number yesterday with the double bend, like an S — I think I saw him once coming out of the Bureau of Guardians. A New Translation, trans.
Natasha Randall New York: Well, first, I am not capable of joking — every joke, by function of its omissions, contains a lie; and, second, One-State Science confirms that the life of the Ancients was exactly so, and One-State Science cannot be mistaken. Yes, after all, how could there have been any logic to their government if all their people lived in that state of freedom, i. What could you possibly expect of them, when even today, on rare occasions, from some distant undersurface, from the shaggy depths of things, you can hear the wild echoes of monkeys?
Fortunately, it rarely happens. Fortunately, these are only minor incidentals: And to expel the offending cog, we have the skillful, severe hand of the benefactor and we have the experienced eye of the Guardians. Yes, by the way, I have just remembered: Create different target texts based on the following directions: What additional information would you like to know from the authors of ST1 and ST2? Formulate your questions in Russian and in English.
Are these news articles from printed newspapers or online web news?
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How can you tell? There is no one translation that is inevitable when moving from ST to TT; rather, there is a multiplicity of appropriate and adequate translations whose success is measured by the matching of goal and product. Our CAM reminds us that we may never reduce the number of central features below a minimum of six, and that each of these features are in constant renegotiation between themselves and the other categories present in any speech act.
In the previous chapter, we focused primarily on the tension that arises between code and message as dominants in poetic source texts and how to attempt to realize this tension appropriately in generating a TT. Any product must define clearly the type of bias that predominates in the translation process. Is the primary goal to create a TT that preserves the ST as closely as possible, including audience, authorial goals, cultural context, code, message and channel, or is the primary goal to create a TT that is reoriented in these fundamental ways to the target culture and language?
Clearly, there will be many possible points along the continuum from ST to TT. In order to bring into focus the difficulties in reconciling these six factors of CAM, we must look closely at the structure of Russian morphology and grammar. In this chapter we give a thorough review of the fundamentals of Russian inflectional and derivational morphology.