The idea of corruption among the clergy almost never appeared in isolation: Furthermore, the theoretical framework that underlay the criticism often differed from one case to another.
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The researcher must consider the specificity of these discourses and their respective arrangements within the political and ideological controversies that marked the proposals for reorganization issuing from the Portuguese religious society in the mid-eighteenth century. Few studies have been dedicated to analyzing the political and social implications of eighteenth-century poems Starling, Historians often investigate their aesthetic and literary aspects, putting to one side their repercussions in the context of the political and doctrinal controversies of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century.
We must therefore not only consider the political discourse of these verses but also insert them among a larger set of texts, thus broadening the field of research to include the intertextual and historical context Skinner, In order to do so, this article will focus on two poems in particular: In , the General Police Intendancy of Portugal, following orders received from the Minister of State, forbade the circulation of both texts. By then, however, they had already spread clandestinely throughout the kingdom.
Despite these poems both receiving suspicious glances from the royal authorities, their contents were not identical. As will be seen throughout this article, their messages were not only different, but they also expressed diverging positions about the Catholic Church and the political organization of Portuguese society.
The verses were probably written some time after The first printed versions were divided into eight cantos. However, in the manuscript copies, this number oscillates between six, seven, eight, or even nine cantos. The poem is based on the following plot: With this aim in mind, the bishop called a meeting of the Cathedral chapter so that they could approve a final decision whereby the dean would be forced to offer the hyssop as he used to do. Lara appealed to the crown, but without success. The new dean also disagreed with the imposed obligation.
A magistrate and a poet, Diniz had held numerous posts in the administration of royal justice. Unfortunately, since we only have his name, it has not been possible to obtain any more information about this man. Unlike O Hissope , this poem does not narrate a particular event, nor does it describe a specific person. The whole text is constructed in defense of the natural freedom of man action and thought.
And, in doing so, the author criticizes the clergy who kept the people in ignorance, and praises the American Independence and the French Revolution as models to be followed. In , this poem was reprinted in the fifth volume of his poetry, and, on that occasion, without any allusion to pseudonyms. This latter edition was printed in Paris, and the poet himself had participated in the selection of the writings that would be published in the volumes.
In this case, unlike the edition, the pseudonym was maintained. The life of Francisco Manuel do Nascimento wasn't easy. In , he was denounced to the Inquisition for having made heretical propositions. He did, however, manage to trick the familiar who had been responsible for his arrest, and successfully escaped. Outside the Portuguese kingdom, the poet lived most of his time in Paris. Satirical poems, religious criticism, and political discourse. The poem O Hissope , a poetic representation of a controversy that occurred in the town of Elvas, in the late s, between the bishop and the dean, did more than just recount a local conflict in verse.
In his report of events, the poet attacked issues that were considered delicate within the Catholic Church, such as clerical vanity, the wealth of the clergy and the pious legacies that were left to the Church.
Afro-Brazilian religions in Portugal: bruxos, priests and pais de santo
The bishop was portrayed as a fat figure who used to spend a great deal of time in holy idleness, enjoying food, games and resting. Actually, both the Dean and the Bishop spent their time flitting between idleness and laziness. A sweet peace reigned in the Holy Church; The bishop and the dean, both consenting To give and receive the blessed hyssop, Life in holy idleness they consumed. A good wine from Malaga, ham From the famous Montanchez, woodcocks, Partridges, the dove, the tender pigeon, The tea leaves from Beijing, and from Mecca The fragrant coffee served at sumptuous tables, Occupied most of their time; And the rest they spent, playing in exemplary fashion, Or sleeping, without feeling it.
The clerical vanity was represented in an episode in which some monks wanted new clothes that would differentiate them from the common people. Ecclesiastic greed was also recalled at different points in the narrative. In one of those passages, the poet had written about the hope that some monks had of a possible increase in wheat prices, an act that they astutely intended to justify as being an example of the divine will.
Throughout the narrative, other aspects were also criticized. That was not all. The passage refers to the occasion when the dean went to the Franciscan convent to speak to the guardian about his conflicts with the bishop. The conversation took place in the convent garden, a rich and opulent space, adorned with statues representing ancient figures.
Despite praising the perfection of that place, abounding in flowers and statues, the dean did, however, notice that there was no waterfall. The guardian promptly replied:. This work will cost a lot of money Answers the guardian — and today the alms To feed the belly of so many friars, Who are ravenous, are just enough.
Once, this convent was rich, But these new testamentary laws, Caused a huge reduction in their rents It is true that the holy exorcisms The blessing of the sorcerers and earthworms, The great and extraordinary privilege Of the brother or mother of friars, and other pious And holy institutes invented, Devoutly and subtly, by our forefathers, And which we, the people, have propagated With zeal and dexterity, mainly Among the devout female sex, Still sleeping from time to time.
But all this is nothing, it's a trifle Compared with Purgatory! Lord, the purgatory and the holy souls Were the Potosi of the Franciscans! In order to understand these verses, it is also necessary to understand just how important the pious legacies were to the Catholic Church and to its congregation throughout the modern era. The doctrine of purgatory, which spread through the Church between the late twelfth and early thirteenth century, established the existence of a place where some dead people would be subjected to a probationary period for the expiation of their sins.
The prayers and indulgences of the living could shorten the length of their stay. After leaving purgatory, the dead would pray for those who had helped them enter into paradise Le Goff, During the modern era, the desire for the salvation of the soul and the fear of condemnation led to the development of a genuine market in salvation, from which the Catholic Church was the main beneficiary in material terms. Antonio Diniz da Cruz e Silva ridiculed the situation of religious orders in the context that they faced after the implementation of the testamentary laws, exposing the damage that such measures could cause to the finances of these institutions.
In fact, the loss of revenue would not exactly endanger the existence of a religious order, but it would certainly affect its wealth and hence its luxury and ostentation. The image of the rich and beautiful garden, full of statues, vases and flowers seems to be used to emphasize this dimension. Despite the acidity of the verses, the attacks made on the religious institutions did not encourage a break with the religion itself.
The poet did not target religious tolerance or the laws of nature. Neither the royal figure nor the political order of Portuguese society were criticized in his verses. Antonio Diniz painted a picture of the monks in which they appear mundane, lazy, greedy and vain, features that did not match the religious state that they aspired to.
He similarly demonstrated his disagreement with certain pious practices that some monks attempted to inculcate into the lives of the faithful, such as exorcisms, and the act of blessing people apparently affected by spells, or even worms. In essence, the satire was manifested as part of a critical discourse developed during the eighteenth century, which sought to eliminate corruption among the clergy and certain religious practices that were classified as superstitious and suitably discredited.
In the satire Sonho tam charro que se fez dormindo. Anatomia religiosa, sem mais cousa nenhuma A dream so clear that was made sleeping. For instance, cult leaders determine that the initiation period must be shortened, so that individuals are not absent from their jobs, or that the need to shave the head of the initiated can be skipped, since individuals would be unable to proceed with their daily lives if this happened: This is not Brazil nor Africa.
Nowadays, one needs to pay attention to these things. Why do we have to insist on this? It is as if migration, the travelling from one place to another, acts as an enhancing experience for both individuals and for therapies, making them more visible and powerful. She started the chain of reproduction of these cults in Portugal by being a returning migrant herself, and thus bringing with her migrating therapies. The empowerment that her initiation in Brazil gave her can only be compared with the empowerment that Brazil or Africa gives nowadays.
But, on the other side of the continuum, also the Brazilian cult leaders who travel to Portugal reinforce their prestige back home, in Brazil, since they become known as being so good in their role that they even cross the ocean to help people overseas. She also refers, as many anthropologists have done Silva ; Capone , the crucial role of other priests, as well as scholars and erudite persons who write about the basis and doctrines of these cults Pordeus Jr.
Living in Madrid, and keeping a terreiro both there and in Lisbon, this priest sends all the monthly program for cult sessions, prayers, and all sorts of announcements, via web. In a town close to Lisbon, an Association for the Afro-Brazilian Culture was created and has been contacting anthropologists like myself and others to publish texts in a on-line journal they have recently started to publish; and the European Federation of Afro-Brazilian Cults, currently under construction, also uses the Internet as the vehicle for diffusion and communication among its members.
Afro-Brazilian cults are successful because they overlap with two tendencies familiar and dear to the Portuguese, the old traditional healers and the Catholic matrix. On the other hand, these Afro-Brazilian cults offer certain things that neither the old popular religious practices nor the Catholic church were able to offer to the individuals that embrace the former: In the present case, migrants try to attain power by acting in a scenario that involves incorporating the fragilities of human existence in life-crisis situations, and by invoking their very same condition of migrants, and travelers, continuously moving, in reality or symbolically, between spaces — Africa, Brazil and Portugal — as an authoritative claim.
Culture , Identity and Social Mobilization.
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Rio de Janeiro, Graal. London, Berghan Books, Um Estudo de Ritual e Conflito. Rio de Janeiro, Jorge Zahar. Umbanda e Sociedade Brasileira. New York, Palgrave Macmillan, Grillo and Valentina Mazzucato, 34 2 , Krankheit und Gesundheit in einer Vernetzten Welt. Lisbon, ISPA , I dedicate this article to Ismael Pordeus Jr. A peer-reviewed journal of social and cultural anthropology publishing articles in Portuguese, English, Spanish and French. Contents - Previous document - Next document.
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Outline Bruxo or pai de santo? New cults and new therapies in Portugal. From Catholicism to African practices. Adaptations in well-being and sickness. Cults and therapies in the Atlantic triangle: Portugal, Brazil and Africa. Full text PDF k Send by e-mail. Bruxo or pai de santo? Trabalhos e registos [Full text]. Os caminhos do Benjamim [Full text]. Browse Index Authors Keywords. Full text issues vol. Syndication Issue feed Document feed. A peer-reviewed journal of social and cultural anthropology publishing articles in Portuguese, English, Spanish and French Publisher: Beira Alta ; county: Castelo Rodrigo ; Event: Miranda do Douro ; locality: Valter Jacinto ; Location: Castro Marim ; locality: Corte do Gago ; verbatimLatitude: Beira Baixa ; county: Castelo Branco ; municipality: Figueira Castelo Rodrigo ; locality: Faia Brava ; locationRemarks: Eduardo Marabuto, Samuel Infante ; individualCount: Monforte da Beira ; locality: Monte Barata ; locationRemarks: Ecological interactions Conservation status Even though this species has a wide distribution, its elusive nocturnal habits e.
Distribution This sole representative of the family Amorphoscelidae in Europe, this is an Atlanto-Mediterranean species generally distributed through the Iberian Peninsula, southern France and North Africa from Morocco to Tunisia Battiston et al. Apteromantis aptera Fuente, Materials Type status: Baixo Alentejo ; county: Castro Verde ; locality: Marcos da Ataboeira ; locationRemarks: Eduardo Marabuto, Ivo Rodrigues ; individualCount: Serra de Ficalho ; locationRemarks: Herdade da Mitra ; verbatimLatitude: Eduardo Marabuto ; individualCount: Francisco Barros ; individualCount: Campo Maior ; locality: Reguengos Monsaraz ; locality: Reguengos Monsaraz ; verbatimLatitude: Ivo Rodrigues ; individualCount: Ecological interactions Conservation status According to Battiston et al.
Distribution A chiefly Afrotropical species, widespread south of the Sahara but with more local populations to the north of this barrier around the Mediterranean Battiston et al. Analysis Our field-work, based mostly on ad-hoc findings of Mantodea within the Portuguese territory over the last few years, found one distinctive, large species never before reported to the country and adds several relevant new records of two little known, smaller species.
Open in a separate window. Portuguese mantid specimens reported in this paper. Discussion The records here presented, notable finds such as a new species to the country and the considerable increase in the known distribution of two other species may not only be considered interesting but also remarkable. Perlamantis allibertii Unlike most mantids in the area, Perlamantis allibertii is a typically nocturnal species which is best found at lights and thus requires a specific sampling protocol. Sphodromantis viridis Besides being a new country record, the three Portuguese records of Sphodromantis viridis extend the distribution area of this species considerably to the west although precise reference data is scant.
Apteromantis aptera The case of Apteromantis aptera may beslightly different. Click here to view. XML Treatment for Apteromantis aptera: XML Treatment for Sphodromantis viridis: Supplementary files Supplementary data to Figure 3 Authors: On the presence of Tenodera rungsi Uvarov, and Apteromantis bolivari Werner, in Morocco with considerations on the ecology and conservation of some North African mantids Insecta: Mantids of the Euro-Mediterranean Area.
Annaes de Sciencias Naturaes.
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Canyelles Xavier, Alomar Guillem. Revista Portuguesa de Zoologia. The biogeography of iberian orthopteroids. New data on the biology and distribution of Euchloe tagis Hubner, in Portugal Lepidoptera: Obertegger U, Agabiti B. On the usefulness of ratios for the identification of some Mediterranean species of the genus Ameles Burmeister, Insecta, Mantodea Zootaxa.
Verdu J R, Galante E, editors. Apteromantis aptera Fuente, Background information on invertebrates of the habitats directive and the Bern Convention. Council of Europe Nature and Environment;