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But there was no radio station in Cuba until The arrival of the first radio station, PWX, was greeted with enthusiasm. PWX debuted on the air on October 10, The station used amateur call letters, and went on the air as 6KW. Before , 14 commercial and 12 public sector radio stations were in operation. The government exerted tight control over radio broadcasting. Political debate was not encouraged. In the election campaign, for example, the opposition was allowed one broadcast while the incumbent made numerous campaign broadcasts.

The government imposed very strict controls on news dissemination. After , stations were allowed only three brief daily bulletins, of seven minutes each, to cover all the day's news. The Prime Minister's office closely supervised the news items that were to be broadcast. As war approached, Frenchmen learned little or nothing about it from the radio.

The government thought that policy wise, because it wanted no interference in its policies.

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The unexpected result, however, was the Frenchman were puzzled and uncertain great crises erupted in , and their morale and support for government policies was much weaker than in Britain. The first radio station in Germany went on the air in Berlin in late , using the call letters "LP. The Post Office Provided overall supervision. A listening fee of 2 Reichsmark per receiver paid most costs, and radio station frequencies were limited, which even restricted the number of amateur radio operators.

Immediately following Hitler's assumption of power in , Joseph Goebbels became head of the Ministry for Propaganda and Public Enlightenment and took full control of broadcasting. Non-Nazis were removed from broadcasting and editorial positions. Jews were fired from all positions. Germany was easily served by a number of European mediumwave stations, including the BBC , but the Nazis made it illegal for Germans to listen to foreign broadcasts.

During the war, German stations broadcast not only war propaganda and entertainment for German forces dispersed through Europe, as well as air raid alerts. There was heavy use of short wave for "Germany Calling" programmes directed at Britain and Allied forces around the world. Goebbels Also set up numerous Nazi stations that pretended to be from the Allied world. German propaganda claimed the system was superior to the British mechanical scanning system. It was founded by Masajiro Kotamura, an inventor and engineer. It was unique in that at least one of its announcers was a woman, Akiko Midorikawa.

All stations were supported by licensing fees: These early stations broadcast on average about eight hours of programs a day. Amateur radio was very popular in Mexico; while most of the hams were male, notably Constantino de Tarnava, acknowledged in some sources as Mexico's first amateur radio operator, [33] one of the early ham radio operators was female—Maria Dolores Estrada. Still, in November , CYL in Mexico City went on the air, featuring music both folk songs and popular dance concerts , religious services, and news. CYL used as its slogans "El Universal" and "La Casa del Radio", and it won over the government, by giving political candidates the opportunity to use the station to campaign.

As these where regular transmissions and the program was announced beforehand in the newspaper NRC , is seen as the start of commercial broadcasting. Interest in amateur radio was noted in the Philippines in the early s. As for the Philippine Broadcasting Company, it too began with one station KZFM , and received its new name in mid, after the Philippines became an independent country.

At the end of , the new network had six stations. Sri Lanka has the oldest radio station in Asia world's second oldest. The station was known as Radio Ceylon. It developed into one of the finest broadcasting institutions in the world. It is now known as the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation. Sri Lanka created broadcasting history in Asia when broadcasting was started in Ceylon by the Telegraph Department in on an experimental footing, just three years after the inauguration of broadcasting in Europe. Gramophone music was broadcast from a tiny room in the Central Telegraph Office with the aid of a small transmitter built by the Telegraph Department engineers from the radio equipment of a captured German submarine.

Edward Harper who came to Ceylon as Chief Engineer of the Telegraph Office in , was the first person to actively promote broadcasting in Ceylon. Sri Lanka occupies an important place in the history of broadcasting with broadcasting services inaugurated just three years after the launch of the BBC in the United Kingdom. Edward Harper launched the first experimental broadcast as well as founding the Ceylon Wireless Club, together with British and Ceylonese radio enthusiasts on the island.

Edward Harper has been dubbed ' the Father of Broadcasting in Ceylon,' because of his pioneering efforts, his skill and his determination to succeed. Edward Harper and his fellow Ceylonese radio enthusiasts, made it happen. The first experimental music broadcasts, from Marconi's factory in Chelmsford , began in Two years later, in October , a consortium of radio manufacturers formed the British Broadcasting Company BBC ; they allowed some sponsored programs, although they were not what we would today consider a fully commercial station.

By late , there were six stations broadcasting regularly in the United Kingdom: Its governors are appointed by the British government, but they do not answer to it. Lord Reith took a formative role in developing the BBC, especially in radio. This provided a very popular alternative to the rather austere BBC. These stations were closed during the War, and only Radio Luxembourg returned afterward. BBC television broadcasts in Britain began on November 2, , and continued until wartime conditions closed the service in Reginald Fessenden did ground-breaking experiments with voice and music by It was the first station to use a vacuum tube transmitter to make radio broadcasts on a regular schedule.

From to Charles Herrold made regular broadcasts, but used an arc transmitter. He switched to a vacuum tube transmitter when he restarted broadcasting activities in Herrold coined the terms broadcasting and narrowcasting ,. David Sarnoff has been considered by many as "the prescient prophet of broadcasting who predicted the medium's rise in ", referring to his radio music box concept. A few organizations were allowed to keep working on radio during the war. Westinghouse was the most well-known of these. Frank Conrad , a Westinghouse engineer, had been making transmissions from 8XK since that included music programming.

Terry was also on the air. By , after the war, radio pioneers across the country resumed transmissions. The early stations gained new call signs. Many early stations were started by newspapers worried radio might replace their newspapers. KDKA received the first federal license and began broadcasting on November 2, Madison Avenue early on recognized the importance of radio as a new advertising medium.

Advertising provided the major funding for most stations. The United States never had a licensing fee for set users.

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NBC became the dominant radio network, splitting into Red and Blue networks. Radio in education began as early as April , when Medford Hillside's WGI Radio broadcast the first of an ongoing series of educational lectures from Tufts College professors. These lectures were described by the press as a sort of "wireless college. This success led to numerous radio courses in the curriculum which has taught thousands of radio broadcasters from the s to today. In , several independent stations formed the Mutual Broadcasting System to exchange syndicated programming, including The Lone Ranger and Amos 'n' Andy.

Prior to , U. United States, which established the framework that the "scarcity" of radio-frequency meant that broadcasting was subject to greater regulation than other media. Another TV network, the DuMont Television Network , was founded earlier, but was disbanded in ; later in the surviving DuMont independent stations formed the nucleus of the new Fox Broadcasting Company. He is remembered for founding Carols by Candlelight , as a pioneer football commentator, and for hosting both musical and interview programs.

In later years he was one of Melbourne's first and most prominent talk back hosts.

At the commencement of his career, Banks was known for his double entendres and risque remarks; as a talk back host he was outspoken in his conservative views, especially regarding the White Australia policy and Apartheid. In his year career in radio was hailed as the longest in world history.

It was then phased in to other capital cities, and then into rural markets. Many forms entertainment, particularly drama and variety, were considered more suited to television than radio, and many such programs were gradually deleted from radio schedules. The transistor radio first appeared on the market in In particular, it made portable radios even more transportable. All sets quicklly became smaller, cheaper and more convenient. The aim of radio manufacturers became a radio in every room, in the car, and in the pocket.

The upshot of these two changes was that stations started to specialise and concentrate on specific markets. Talk back "talk radio" became a major radio genre by the end of the s, but it was not legalised in Australia until October There was also a seven-second delay so that obscene or libelous material could be monitored.

By the end of the s, specialisation by radio stations had increased dramatically and there were stations focusing on various kinds of music, talk back, news, sport, etc. When the Federal Republic of Germany was organized in , its Enabling Act established strong state government powers.

By tuning into an EPG channel, a menu is displayed that lists current and upcoming television programs on all available channels. A more modern form of the EPG, associated with both television and radio broadcasting, is the interactive [electronic] program guide IPG, though often referred to as EPG.

Its interactive menus are generated entirely within local receiving or display equipment using raw scheduling data sent by individual broadcast stations or centralized scheduling information providers. A typical IPG provides information covering a span of seven or 14 days. Data used to populate an interactive EPG may be distributed over the Internet , either for a charge or free of charge, and implemented on equipment connected directly or through a computer to the Internet.

It allowed cable systems in the United States and Canada to provide on-screen listings to their subscribers 24 hours a day displaying programming information up to 90 minutes in advance on a dedicated cable channel. Raw listings data for the service was supplied via satellite to participating cable systems, each of which installed a computer within its headend facility to present that data to subscribers in a format customized to the system's unique channel lineup. The system was the focus of a article in STV Magazine. A remote control was used to interact with the unit.

When the user found a show they wanted to watch, they would have to turn off the guide and then tune the satellite receiver to the correct service. The guide information was distributed by satellite using the home owner's dish as the receiver. The information was stored locally so that the user could use the guide without having to be on a particular satellite or service.

In March , a second generation SuperGuide system was introduced that was integrated into the Uniden receiver. When the user found the show of interest, they pressed a button on the remote and the receiver tuned to the show they wanted to watch. This unit also had a single button recording function, and controlled VCRs via an infrared output see US Available in North America, it was the first commercially available unit for home use that had a locally stored guide integrated with the receiver for single button viewing and taping.

Zemering and Frank Shannon. This patent concerned the implementation of a searchable electronic program guide — an interactive program guide IPG. The situation varies from country to country, depending on the status of digitization and the role of pay television and IPTV in each market. Scandinavia also is a highly innovative EPG market. In contrast to many other European countries, Germany lags behind, due to a relatively slow digitization process and the minor role of pay television in that country.

Interactive program guides are nearly ubiquitous in most broadcast media today. EPGs can be made available through television on set-top boxes , mobile phones particularly through smartphone apps , and on the Internet. For television, IPG support is built into almost all modern receivers for digital cable, digital satellite , and over-the-air digital broadcasting. Higher-end receivers for digital broadcast radio and digital satellite radio commonly feature built-in IPGs as well.

Demand for non-interactive electronic television program guides — television channels displaying listings for currently airing and upcoming programming — has been nearly eliminated by the widespread availability of interactive program guides for television; TV Guide Network, the largest of these services, eventually abandoned its original purpose as a non-interactive EPG service and became a traditional general entertainment cable channel, eventually rebranding as Pop in January Two lathes were required to capture a program longer than 15 minutes without losing parts of it while discs were flipped over or changed, along with a trained technician to operate them and monitor the recording while it was being made.

However, some surviving recordings were produced by local stations. When a substantial number of copies of an electrical transcription were required, as for the distribution of a syndicated program, they were produced by the same process used to make ordinary records. A master recording was cut, then electroplated to produce a stamper from which pressings in vinyl or, in the case of transcription discs pressed before about , shellac were molded in a record press.

War Department 's quest to improve troop morale. This quest began with short-wave broadcasts of educational and information programs to troops in In , the War Department began issuing "Buddy Kits" B-Kits to departing troops, which consisted of radios, 78 rpm records and electrical transcription discs of radio shows. However, with the entrance of the United States into World War II, the War Department decided that it needed to improve the quality and quantity of its offerings. This began with the broadcasting of its own original variety programs.

Command Performance was the first of these, produced for the first time on March 1, Originally, its programming comprised network radio shows with the commercials removed. However, it soon began producing original programming, such as Mail Call , G. Journal , Jubilee and GI Jive. At its peak in , the Service produced around 20 hours of original programming each week. Included among the popular shows was Viva America which showcased leading musical artists from both North and South America for the entertainment of America's troops.

Included among the regular performers were: During the s and early s it presented performances by the Army's only symphonic orchestra ensemble - the Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra. All of the shows aired by the AFRS during the Golden Age were recorded as electrical transcription discs, vinyl copies of which were shipped to stations overseas to be broadcast to the troops. There was some home recording of radio broadcasts in the s and s.

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Examples from as early as have been documented. During these years, home recordings were made with disc recorders, most of which were only capable of storing about four minutes of a radio program on each side of a twelve-inch 78 rpm record. Most home recordings were made on even shorter-playing ten-inch or smaller discs.

Office dictation equipment was sometimes pressed into service for making recordings of radio broadcasts, but the audio quality of these devices was poor and the resulting recordings were in odd formats which had to be played back on similar equipment. Due to the expense of recorders and the limitations of the recording media, home recording of broadcasts was not common during this period and it was usually limited to brief excerpts.

The lack of suitable home recording equipment was somewhat relieved in with the availability of magnetic wire recorders for domestic use. These were capable of recording an hour-long broadcast on a single small spool of wire, and if a high-quality radio's audio output was recorded directly, rather than by holding a microphone up to its speaker, the recorded sound quality was very good. However, because the wire cost money and, like magnetic tape , could be repeatedly re-used to make new recordings, only a few complete broadcasts appear to have survived on this medium.

In fact, there was little home recording of complete radio programs until the early s, when increasingly affordable reel-to-reel tape recorders for home use were introduced to the market. Before the early s, when radio networks and local stations wanted to preserve a live broadcast, they did so by means of special phonograph records known as " electrical transcriptions " ETs , made by cutting a sound-modulated groove into a blank disc. At first, in the early s, the blanks varied in both size and composition, but most often they were simply bare aluminum and the groove was indented rather than cut.

Typically, these very early recordings were not made by the network or radio station, but by a private recording service contracted by the broadcast sponsor or one of the performers. The making of such recordings, at least for some purposes, then became routine. Some discs were recorded using a "hill and dale" vertically modulated groove, rather than the "lateral" side-to-side modulation found on the records being made for home use at that time. The large slow-speed discs could easily contain fifteen minutes on each side, allowing an hour-long program to be recorded on only two discs.

The lacquer was softer than shellac or vinyl and wore more rapidly, allowing only a few playbacks with the heavy pickups and steel needles then in use before deterioration became audible. During World War II, aluminum became a necessary material for the war effort and was in short supply. This caused an alternative to be sought for the base on which to coat the lacquer.



Glass, despite its obvious disadvantage of fragility, had occasionally been used in earlier years because it could provide a perfectly smooth and even supporting surface for mastering and other critical applications. Glass base recording blanks came into general use for the duration of the war.

In the late s, wire recorders became a readily obtainable means of recording radio programs. On a per-minute basis, it was less expensive to record a broadcast on wire than on discs. The one-hour program that required the four sides of two inch discs could be recorded intact on a single spool of wire less than three inches in diameter and about half an inch thick.

The audio fidelity of a good wire recording was comparable to acetate discs and by comparison the wire was practically indestructible, but it was soon rendered obsolete by the more manageable and easily edited medium of magnetic tape. Bing Crosby became the first major proponent of magnetic tape recording for radio, and he was the first to use it on network radio, after he did a demonstration program in Running at a sufficiently high speed, it could achieve higher fidelity than both electrical transcription discs and magnetic wire. Discs could be edited only by copying parts of them to a new disc, and the copying entailed a loss of audio quality.

Wire could be divided up and the ends spliced together by knotting, but wire was difficult to handle and the crude splices were too noticeable. Tape could be edited by cutting it with a blade and neatly joining ends together with adhesive tape. By early , the transition from live performances preserved on discs to performances prerecorded on magnetic tape for later broadcast was complete for network radio programs. The great majority of pre-World War II live radio broadcasts, many never recorded at all, have not been preserved; most of the oldest existing radio program recordings date to the early s, and several of the longer-running radio dramas have their archives complete or nearly complete back to that time.

The earlier the date, the less likely it is that a recording of the broadcast was made and survives. A good number of prerecorded syndicated programs from this period have survived because copies of those were originally distributed far and wide. Syndicated programs from World War II and later years have nearly all survived.



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The survival of network programming from this time frame is more inconsistent; the networks started prerecording their formerly live shows on magnetic tape for subsequent network broadcast, but did not physically distribute copies, and the tapes, unlike electrical transcription "ET" discs, could be "wiped" and re-used especially since, in the age of emerging trends such as television and music radio , such recordings were believed to have virtually no rerun or resale value. Thus, while some prime time network radio series from this era exist in full or almost in full, especially the most famous and longest-lived of them, less prominent or shorter-lived series such as serials may have only a handful of extant episodes.

Airchecks , off-the-air recordings of complete shows made by, or at the behest of, individuals for their own private use, sometimes help to fill in such gaps. The contents of privately made recordings of live broadcasts from the first half of the s can be of particular interest, as little live material from that period survives.

Unfortunately, the sound quality of very early private recordings is often very poor, although in some cases this is largely due to the use of an incorrect playback stylus, which can also badly damage some unusual types of discs. Most of the Golden Age programs in circulation among collectors — whether on analog tape, CD, or in the form of MP3s — originated from inch transcription discs.

In many cases, the circulating recordings are several generations of analog reel-to-reel and cassette tape copies down the line from the original discs, being the product of tape-trading among collectors during the decades before lossless digital duplication was possible. The muffled sound, dropouts, sudden changes in sound quality, unsteady pitch and other defects heard all too often are almost always accumulated tape copy defects.

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The audio quality of the source discs, when they have survived unscathed and are accessed and dubbed anew, is usually found to be reasonably clear and undistorted, sometimes startlingly good, although like all phonograph records they are vulnerable to wear and the effects of scuffs, scratches and ground-in dust. Unlike film, television, and print items from the era, the copyright status of most recordings from the Golden Age of Radio is unclear. This is because, prior to , the United States delegated the copyrighting of sound recordings to the individual states, many of which offered more generous common law copyright protections than the federal government offered for other media some offered perpetual copyright, which has since been abolished; under the Music Modernization Act of September , any sound recording 95 years old or older will be thrust into the public domain regardless of state law.

In practice, most old-time radio recordings are treated as orphan works: The copyright on an individual sound recording is distinct from the federal copyright for the underlying material such as a published script, music, or in the case of adaptations, the original film or television material , and in many cases it is impossible to determine where or when the original recording was made or if the recording was copyrighted in that state. Copyright Office states "there are a variety of legal regimes governing protection of pre sound recordings in the various states, and the scope of protection and of exceptions and limitations to that protection is unclear.

Some old-time radio shows continued on the air, although in ever-dwindling numbers, throughout the s even after their television equivalents had conquered the general public.