Various states in the republic of India provide 12 years of compulsory school education based on a national curriculum framework designed by the National Council of Educational Research and Training. In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education comprises the formal education that occurs during adolescence. It is characterized by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors , to the optional, selective tertiary , "postsecondary", or " higher " education e.
Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, may be called secondary or high schools , gymnasiums , lyceums , middle schools, colleges , or vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from country to country and even within them but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling.
The Education System of the Czech Republic
Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years. In the United States, Canada, and Australia , primary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as K education, and in New Zealand Year 1—13 is used. The purpose of secondary education can be to give common knowledge , to prepare for higher education , or to train directly in a profession. Secondary education in the United States did not emerge until , with the rise of large corporations and advancing technology in factories, which required skilled workers.
In order to meet this new job demand, high schools were created, with a curriculum focused on practical job skills that would better prepare students for white collar or skilled blue collar work. This proved beneficial for both employers and employees, since the improved human capital lowered costs for the employer, while skilled employees received higher wages.
Secondary education has a longer history in Europe, where grammar schools or academies date from as early as the 16th century, in the form of public schools , fee-paying schools , or charitable educational foundations, which themselves date even further back. Community colleges offer another option at this transitional stage of education. They provide nonresidential junior college courses to people living in a particular area.
Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or postsecondary education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school such as a high school or secondary school. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education , as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities mainly provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions.
Individuals who complete tertiary education generally receive certificates , diplomas , or academic degrees. Higher education typically involves work towards a degree-level or foundation degree qualification. Higher education is therefore very important to national economies , both as a significant industry in its own right and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. University education includes teaching, research, and social services activities, and it includes both the undergraduate level sometimes referred to as tertiary education and the graduate or postgraduate level sometimes referred to as graduate school.
Some universities are composed of several colleges. One type of university education is a liberal arts education, which can be defined as a " college or university curriculum aimed at imparting broad general knowledge and developing general intellectual capacities, in contrast to a professional, vocational , or technical curriculum. Vocational education is a form of education focused on direct and practical training for a specific trade or craft.
Vocational education may come in the form of an apprenticeship or internship as well as institutions teaching courses such as carpentry , agriculture , engineering , medicine , architecture and the arts. In the past, those who were disabled were often not eligible for public education.
Children with disabilities were repeatedly denied an education by physicians or special tutors. These early physicians people like Itard , Seguin , Howe , Gallaudet set the foundation for special education today. They focused on individualized instruction and functional skills. In its early years, special education was only provided to people with severe disabilities, but more recently it has been opened to anyone who has experienced difficulty learning. While considered "alternative" today, most alternative systems have existed since ancient times.
After the public school system was widely developed beginning in the 19th century, some parents found reasons to be discontented with the new system. Alternative education developed in part as a reaction to perceived limitations and failings of traditional education. A broad range of educational approaches emerged, including alternative schools , self learning , homeschooling , and unschooling. Charter schools are another example of alternative education, which have in the recent years grown in numbers in the US and gained greater importance in its public education system.
Indigenous education refers to the inclusion of indigenous knowledge, models, methods, and content within formal and non-formal educational systems. Often in a post-colonial context, the growing recognition and use of indigenous education methods can be a response to the erosion and loss of indigenous knowledge and language through the processes of colonialism.
Furthermore, it can enable indigenous communities to "reclaim and revalue their languages and cultures, and in so doing, improve the educational success of indigenous students. Informal learning occurs in a variety of places, such as at home , work , and through daily interactions and shared relationships among members of society. For many learners, this includes language acquisition , cultural norms , and manners. In informal learning, there is often a reference person, a peer or expert, to guide the learner.
If learners have a personal interest in what they are informally being taught, learners tend to expand their existing knowledge and conceive new ideas about the topic being learned. While informal learning often takes place outside educational establishments and does not follow a specified curriculum, it can also occur within educational settings and even during formal learning situations.
Learning transcends walls.
Educators can structure their lessons to directly utilize their students informal learning skills within the education setting. In the late 19th century, education through play began to be recognized as making an important contribution to child development. Jacks , also an early proponent of lifelong learning, described education through recreation: He hardly knows which is which. He simply pursues his vision of excellence through whatever he is doing and leaves others to determine whether he is working or playing. To himself, he always seems to be doing both.
Enough for him that he does it well. Autodidacticism also autodidactism is a term used to describe self-directed learning. One may become an autodidact at nearly any point in one's life. Notable autodidacts include Abraham Lincoln U.
Champion their potential.
Many large university institutions are now starting to offer free or almost free full courses such as Harvard , MIT and Berkeley teaming up to form edX. Other universities offering open education are prestigious private universities such as Stanford , Princeton , Duke , Johns Hopkins , the University of Pennylvania , and Caltech , as well as notable public universities including Tsinghua , Peking , Edinburgh , University of Michigan , and University of Virginia.
Open education has been called the biggest change in the way people learn since the printing press. Many open universities are working to have the ability to offer students standardized testing and traditional degrees and credentials. The conventional merit-system degree is currently not as common in open education as it is in campus universities, although some open universities do already offer conventional degrees such as the Open University in the United Kingdom.
Presently, many of the major open education sources offer their own form of certificate. Due to the popularity of open education, these new kind of academic certificates are gaining more respect and equal " academic value " to traditional degrees. Out of colleges surveyed in nearly half said tuition for online courses was higher than for campus-based ones. A recent meta-analysis found that online and blended educational approaches had better outcomes than methods that used solely face-to-face interaction.
The education sector or education system is a group of institutions ministries of education, local educational authorities, teacher training institutions, schools, universities, etc. It involves a wide range of people curriculum developers, inspectors, school principals, teachers, school nurses, students, etc. These institutions can vary according to different contexts. Schools deliver education, with support from the rest of the education system through various elements such as education policies and guidelines — to which school policies can refer — curricula and learning materials, as well as pre- and in-service teacher training programmes.
The school environment — both physical infrastructures and psychological school climate — is also guided by school policies that should ensure the well-being of students when they are in school. They must also seek feedback from students for quality-assurance and improvement. Governments should limit themselves to monitoring student proficiency. The education sector is fully integrated into society, through interactions with a large number of stakeholders and other sectors.
These include parents, local communities, religious leaders, NGOs, stakeholders involved in health, child protection , justice and law enforcement police , media and political leadership. Several UN agencies have asserted that comprehensive sexuality education should be integrated into school curriculum. Chimombo pointed out education's role as a policy instrument to instil social change and economic advancement in developing countries, by giving communities the opportunity to take control of their destinies [43]. The Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by the United Nations UN General Assembly in September , calls for a new vision to address the environmental, social and economic concerns facing the world today.
Since , the ratio of children in the developing world attending school has increased. Before then, a small minority of boys attended school. By the start of the 21st century, the majority of all children in most regions of the world attended school. Universal Primary Education is one of the eight international Millennium Development Goals , towards which progress has been made in the past decade, though barriers still remain. Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute have indicated that the main obstacles to funding for education include conflicting donor priorities, an immature aid architecture, and a lack of evidence and advocacy for the issue.
Indigenous governments are reluctant to take on the ongoing costs involved. There is also economic pressure from some parents, who prefer their children to earn money in the short term rather than work towards the long-term benefits of education. A study conducted by the UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning indicates that stronger capacities in educational planning and management may have an important spill-over effect on the system as a whole.
Nearly every country now has Universal Primary Education. Similarities — in systems or even in ideas — that schools share internationally have led to an increase in international student exchanges. The Soros Foundation [50] provides many opportunities for students from central Asia and eastern Europe. Programs such as the International Baccalaureate have contributed to the internationalization of education.
The global campus online, led by American universities, allows free access to class materials and lecture files recorded during the actual classes. The Programme for International Student Assessment and the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement objectively monitor and compare the proficiency of students from a wide range of different nations. The internationalization of education is sometimes equated by critics with the westernization of education. These critics say that the internationalization of education leads to the erosion of local education systems and indigenous values and norms, which are replaced with Western systems and cultural and ideological values and orientation.
Technology plays an increasingly significant role in improving access to education for people living in impoverished areas and developing countries. However, lack of technological advancement is still causing barriers with regards to quality and access to education in developing countries [52] Charities like One Laptop per Child are dedicated to providing infrastructures through which the disadvantaged may access educational materials.
The laptops were widely available as of They are sold at cost or given away based on donations. In Africa, the New Partnership for Africa's Development NEPAD has launched an " e-school program " to provide all , primary and high schools with computer equipment, learning materials and internet access within 10 years. India is developing technologies that will bypass land-based telephone and Internet infrastructure to deliver distance learning directly to its students.
In , the Indian Space Research Organisation launched EDUSAT , a communications satellite providing access to educational materials that can reach more of the country's population at a greatly reduced cost. The report examined the main challenges encountered by development organizations which support LCPSs.
This success is attributed to excess demand. These surveys found concern for:. The report showed some cases of successful voucher and subsidy programs; evaluations of international support to the sector are not widespread. Emerging approaches stress the importance of understanding the political economy of the market for LCPS, specifically how relationships of power and accountability between users, government, and private providers can produce better education outcomes for the poor.
Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Although the terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as educational psychologists , whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as school psychologists.
Educational psychology is concerned with the processes of educational attainment in the general population and in sub-populations such as gifted children and those with specific disabilities. Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines.
An Education - Wikipedia
It is informed primarily by psychology , bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology. Educational psychology, in turn, informs a wide range of specialties within educational studies, including instructional design , educational technology , curriculum development, organizational learning , special education and classroom management. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. Intelligence is an important factor in how the individual responds to education. Those who have higher intelligence tend to perform better at school and go on to higher levels of education.
There has been much interest in learning modalities and styles over the last two decades. The most commonly employed learning modalities are: Other commonly employed modalities include musical , interpersonal , verbal , logical , and intrapersonal. Dunn and Dunn [62] focused on identifying relevant stimuli that may influence learning and manipulating the school environment, at about the same time as Joseph Renzulli [63] recommended varying teaching strategies.
Howard Gardner [64] identified a wide range of modalities in his Multiple Intelligences theories. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Keirsey Temperament Sorter , based on the works of Jung , [65] focus on understanding how people's personality affects the way they interact personally, and how this affects the way individuals respond to each other within the learning environment.
Some theories propose that all individuals benefit from a variety of learning modalities, while others suggest that individuals may have preferred learning styles, learning more easily through visual or kinesthetic experiences. Educational neuroscience is an emerging scientific field that brings together researchers in cognitive neuroscience , developmental cognitive neuroscience , educational psychology , educational technology , education theory and other related disciplines to explore the interactions between biological processes and education.
Several academic institutions around the world are beginning to devote resources to the establishment of educational neuroscience research. As an academic field, philosophy of education is "the philosophical study of education and its problems That is, it may be part of the discipline in the sense of being concerned with the aims, forms, methods, or results of the process of educating or being educated; or it may be metadisciplinary in the sense of being concerned with the concepts, aims, and methods of the discipline.
There is no broad consensus as to what education's chief aim or aims are or should be.
Some authors stress its value to the individual, emphasizing its potential for positively influencing students' personal development, promoting autonomy, forming a cultural identity or establishing a career or occupation. Other authors emphasize education's contributions to societal purposes, including good citizenship, shaping students into productive members of society, thereby promoting society's general economic development, and preserving cultural values. In formal education, a curriculum is the set of courses and their content offered at a school or university.
As an idea, curriculum stems from the Latin word for race course , referring to the course of deeds and experiences through which children grow to become mature adults. A curriculum is prescriptive and is based on a more general syllabus which merely specifies what topics must be understood and to what level to achieve a particular grade or standard. An academic discipline is a branch of knowledge which is formally taught, either at the university — or via some other such method.
Each discipline usually has several sub-disciplines or branches, and distinguishing lines are often both arbitrary and ambiguous. Examples of broad areas of academic disciplines include the natural sciences , mathematics , computer science , social sciences , humanities and applied sciences. Educational institutions may incorporate fine arts as part of K grade curricula or within majors at colleges and universities as electives.
The various types of fine arts are music, dance, and theatre. The Sudbury Valley School offers a model of education without a curricula. Instruction is the facilitation of another's learning. Instructors in primary and secondary institutions are often called teachers , and they direct the education of students and might draw on many subjects like reading , writing , mathematics , science and history.
Instructors in post-secondary institutions might be called teachers , instructors, or professors , depending on the type of institution; and they primarily teach only their specific discipline. Studies from the United States suggest that the quality of teachers is the single most important factor affecting student performance, and that countries which score highly on international tests have multiple policies in place to ensure that the teachers they employ are as effective as possible. A popular way to gauge teaching performance is to use student evaluations of teachers SETS , but these evaluations have been criticized for being counterproductive to learning and inaccurate due to student bias.
He would show a the correct way to perform an action, b the incorrect way the player performed it, and again c the correct way to perform an action. This helped him to be a responsive teacher and fix errors on the fly. Also, less communication from him meant more time that the player could practice. It has been argued that high rates of education are essential for countries to be able to achieve high levels of economic growth.
However, technology transfer requires knowledgeable managers and engineers who are able to operate new machines or production practices borrowed from the leader in order to close the gap through imitation. Therefore, a country's ability to learn from the leader is a function of its stock of " human capital ". Go back and try again. Use the Contact Us link at the bottom of our website for account-specific questions or issues.
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