They might still be a tribute to the revolutionary ideal of equality; but the urgency, the sense of necessity and bravura that had marked the first calls to arms during the early Revolution had long since vanished. This was especially true in the final years of the Empire, when the army was taking men from all five classes and was incorporating even sixteenand seventeen-year-olds in the regiments.
Most marched off doggedly, even fatalistically, the product of a country exhausted by years of heavy recruitment and cowed by threats of arrest and punishment. He lavished praise on his braves, praise and flattery, while reserving the highest honours of state — including the newly created Legion of Honour — for his officers and marshals.
Napoleon recognised, as, indeed, the Directory had begun to do, how deeply the system of honours accorded with the aspirations of the army, and the new elite which he created at the apex of French society was strongly biased in favour of the military. Soldiers responded to grandiose ceremonies like the one at Boulogne in where, with , men lined up before him, he distributed the coveted eagles to the new members of the Legion.
The Legion remained an overwhelmingly military honour. Of the 35, legionnaires alive in , only one in fifteen had been rewarded for service in the civil sphere; the others were soldiers. The new value system in no way diminished their fighting powers or diluted their motivation; their achievements on the battlefield are wellknown to all, and their loyalty to Napoleon and to the imperial cause was legendary. But even those who remained in the army showed little affection for the Bourbon cause. For men like Captain Bertrand, seasoned soldiers who had served in long campaigns, Napoleon was an idol and an inspiration.
A Political Life New York, , p. In the years after they would form one of the principal vectors of a rival, imperial legend. Because the Napoleonic polity was so dominated by the fact of war, by the need for ever greater armies and for the resources to sustain them, the image of the soldier and the symbolic representation of military values became more and more prominent in the public sphere. His artists were discouraged from expressing doubt or regret, or allowing themselves the luxury of sadness or pathos. More typical were images of the hero, Napoleon crossing the Alps, or his troops triumphant on the battlefield of Marengo.
The consumers of these great tableaux were, in any case, largely restricted to those with the leisure and education to visit galleries and art exhibitions. Those of more modest means were dependent on cheap reproductions, on prints and woodcuts that could be printed in newspapers or sold in print shops.
For the great moments of the Napoleonic legend these prints abound in great profusion. The titles of their works are indicative of their central theme, the mingling of glory with exoticism in the greatest of all missions civilisatrices. Napoleon is shown advancing steadily from triumph to improbable triumph, the impact made all the greater by the repeated contrast between France and Africa as he uncovered to an admiring gaze the wonders of an exotic world. The prints are located in B.
Napoleon and the blurring of memory 55 with culture, and, very frequently, with those strangers, like pedlars and soldiers, who could bring news of the outside world. It should be stressed that Pellerin and the other imagistes from Epinal were only peripherally interested in political and military images at the beginning of the Empire.
Their main effort lay in the production of religious pictures and in printing books and cheap tracts for a popular readership: The catalogue lists them in detail: These were far from the morally upright, virtuous qualities that were supposedly the hallmark of the revolutionary soldier. Napoleonic soldiers were shown as being rather vain, proud of their military rank, pleased to be distinguished 45 46 47 The identification of soldiers and pedlars in popular imagery is noted by David Hopkin, Soldier and Peasant in French Popular Culture, — London, , pp.
The troops also cut dashing figures in bright, well-cut uniforms; in contrast to their revolutionary counterparts, Napoleonic troops were elegantly attired, and every soldier on joining his regiment was completely outfitted and provided with an allowance to ensure that he would remain smartly kitted out. The smart appearance of the army was integral to its morale, and if the everyday reality, especially during long, hot marches, fell badly short of what military regulations demanded, there is little doubt that soldiers, and especially officers, took their appearance seriously.
Every regiment had its full dress uniform grande tenue for parades and battle, distinguished by its collars and cuffs, waistcoats and epaulettes. Bandsmen and musicians wore braided coats and sumptuous plumes. These images were, of course, the stuff of future memories — crisplydrawn, brightly-coloured images that would achieve renewed popularity during the nineteenth century and which presented the Napoleonic soldier as he liked to be remembered and as his fellow countrymen would prefer to think of him.
The Napoleonic army, forged through annual conscription, attracted few who were genuine volunteers, few whom poverty or family quarrels or a youthful taste for adventure had not pushed in the direction of the army. It is no accident, for instance, that 48 49 John R. Elting, Swords around a Throne. Napoleon and the blurring of memory 57 a large proportion of the recruits raised in Paris were the sons of recent immigrants from the rural hinterland or came from the poorest areas of the city.
And many of the youngest — those aged between twelve and fifteen who signed on as boy soldiers — came from the most disadvantaged groups of all: That did not necessarily reduce their fighting qualities, of course, but it made them a very different kind of army from the young men who had marched off to defend the patrie in In , at the end of the war, the Third Foreign Regiment which incorporated a large part of the Legion contained 36 per cent of Irish officers as against 54 per cent of Frenchmen.
In short, they shared with their French counterparts a pride in their regimental history and they responded like them to the lure of military medals and battle honours. This revitalised sense of pride in soldiering and identification with the service of the state was exactly what Napoleon wanted; he had little interest in stirring memories of revolutionary idealism. Rather, he insisted that his army should be well-drilled and disciplined, obedient to orders and ready to sacrifice itself in the cause of glory. He was ready to reward his soldiers and honour their courage; he would allow them a customary degree of licence when circumstances favoured it; but above all, he expected them to behave professionally and to conduct themselves in a manner that reflected the majesty of the imperial state.
Consider the words of his proclamation to the army in December , following the defeat of Austria and the signature of the peace treaty at Pressburg. He congratulated his men on what they had achieved, and thanked them for the sacrifices of two arduous campaigns. He had decorated and promoted those whose conduct had been particularly meritorious, and he now promised them a part in the celebrations that were to follow: I will give a great festival at Paris in the first days of May; you shall all be there.
Napoleon was insistent that during the months ahead, while they would be returning to their homes, they must behave well towards civilians and conduct themselves with the correctness that would be expected of true professionals. The proclamation continues with a veiled warning. Soldiers, during the three months which are necessary for your return to France, be the model of all armies; you have now to give examples, not of courage and intrepidity, but of strict discipline.
Napoleon and the blurring of memory 59 conduct themselves towards you as they must do towards their heroes and their defenders. Napoleonic power was, of course, constructed on the success of the military, and the Emperor never forgot his dependence on the power of the army. The huge procession of judges, court officials, departmental administrators and civic and religious leaders who were called to Paris for the ceremony was headed by those at the very top of the Napoleonic hierarchy: As Marshal Marmont pertinently recorded, the ceremony was intended to be august and to inspire awe both inside France and across Europe.
Le Sacre Paris, , p. This was celebrated throughout France. At Rueil, where a bust of Napoleon was placed on a pedestal at the church entrance, a board proclaimed to the faithful just what had earned Napoleon his sanctification, and many must have found the explanation curiously secular. But in general the festival generated little enthusiasm, and did little beyond encouraging effusions of public rhetoric in praise of the Emperor and his successive conquests. The War against God, —14 London, , p. This theme is developed in a number of national contexts by the contributors to Michael Rowe ed.
State-Formation in an Age of Upheaval, c. The garde nationale was not wholly disbanded and, though Napoleon had little faith in their ability to perform a civil function, preferring the soldats-gendarmes of the new Gendarmerie Nationale to the citoyens-gardes, he was quite prepared to give them a role in national defence, at least in times of danger.
The decree of 6 January called for armies of reserve composed of national guardsmen, in all battalions each strong who would rush to the defence of Paris and Lyon as foreign armies advanced on to French soil. Here, as French resistance crumbled, was the true cry of , a cry to the heart, to the people of France, to perform an exceptional civic duty. The service that was being asked for, the law insisted, was utterly exceptional; it would involve only a short period away from home and family; and it was an appeal to the spirit and sentiment of the people as well as to the self-interest of all.
Napoleon was desperate for fresh troops, and he was forced to abandon the structured order of annual conscriptions and fill the ranks as he could, playing on the fears of frontier towns and cities, on the abilities and ambitions of local power brokers, on the hatreds stirred by experience of invasion. Prefects, indeed, often expressed reluctance to approve what were essentially private armies at a time when they were also trying to fill depleted regular units, seeing this, not without reason, both as an added tax on the community and as a challenge to the authority of the state.
Was there not a danger that men would desert from the regular battalions in favour of the good pay and lax discipline of the partisans? Thus the Prefect of the Gironde tried to lay down strict constraints on recruitment. The partisans de la Gironde were to recruit only from men who had already retired from army service, he declared, and the names of all partisans were to be presented to the Prefect for approval.
He noted that the corps francs were often unruly and disorderly; that there was no clear chain of command; and that there were unacceptable delays in putting the corps into active service because there were no weapons or ammunition, or because their leaders were unable to find the necessary sponsorship. For posterity, however, it was the image that would be most enduring. When France was invaded, when their own homes and communities were threatened, the partisans responded to the call to defend the patrie, often poorly trained and armed, other than with their courage and their patriotic fervour.
And, though 65 66 67 A. Once again, as in , wall posters urged people to rise in defence of their liberties, to take up arms for the cause of the nation. Consciously and repeatedly, the public utterances of recalled the sacrifice of and reminded the people of that previous moment when the country had faced defeat and invasion.
The people, it was inferred, were again in arms, with everyone — men, women and children — called on to make a personal contribution to defend the soil of France. Too many men had seen their adolescence interrupted and their ambitions cut short; too many, whether they were volunteers or conscripts, had suffered and died in the pursuit of revolutionary liberty or Napoleonic glory.
The impact of war was not confined to those who served in the armies. Civilians, too, had seen their livelihoods destroyed, their homes turned into emergency billets, their farmhands and apprentices called to the colours, their crops and livestock requisitioned for the war effort.
Gender roles had been challenged as women were forced to take over the farm or supplement the family income in the absence of the principal breadwinner, while land risked falling out of production through a shortage of young, able-bodied labourers. The natural tenor of the generations was interrupted, as sons died before their fathers, and mothers were left to the chill reality of widowhood and a lonely old age. War left France both economically weakened and facing serious demographic consequences that would not magically disappear with the return of peace.
Alone of the great powers France had been involved in an almost unbroken land war since the early s. They faced problems of reinsertion into civilian life and, for many, the misery of unemployment and of seeing themselves condemned to exist on the margins of society. And since a peacetime government had little need for the massive Napoleonic army, swollen by annual conscription and by levies imposed on the countries France had conquered, the widespread desertions and unexplained absences may even have been helpful in the task of reducing the military to a force more suited to peacetime defence.
On 12 May the government ordered the suppression of nearly a hundred infantry regiments and of thirty-eight cavalry regiments, with similar levels of troop reduction throughout the army. No one was spared in the cull. Artillery regiments were cut from eighteen to twelve, the number of engineers halved from sixty companies to thirty. Officers and non-commissioned officers were removed from active service and placed on reserve, on demi-solde, their number further swollen by the reconstitution of the old Maison du roi and the return of royalist officers from emigration; the suspicion was well-founded that the officer corps was being purged of all those who had advanced their careers under Napoleon.
And the Hundred Days, by presenting the officers with such clear temptation and compelling them to declare their loyalty for or against the monarchy, only worsened the dilemma facing the old imperial army. Did they remain in inactivity, their freedom of movement curtailed and their pensions barely adequate to keep them alive, waiting for the day when the Bourbons would decide their fate?
Or did they rally once again to the cause of the Empire, and to the tricolor flag for which they all, republicans and Bonapartists alike, felt a certain nostalgic regard? Those who did, and who were again seduced by the call to glory, risked paying a heavy price for their mistake during the Second Restoration. Most of the generals of the Hundred Days chose to leave the country rather than face investigation: First the government proscribed those it identified as the Napoleonic political and military elite; it then went on to order the dismissal of all those officers and soldiers who had served under Napoleon and his marshals, ordering them to return to their homes at once.
Further steps were taken to reduce the size of the army by forcibly retiring those who had passed the age of fifty or who had performed twenty-five years of service, thus ridding the army at a stroke of many of the men who had served under the Revolution. Those who had been seriously wounded in the service of the Emperor were likewise forced to retire, on the grounds that they could no longer carry out the duties required of them.
As a result, large numbers of veterans, many ill or wounded, returned to their homes within a few months of the peace, condemned to probable unemployment and only parsimonious assistance from a bankrupt War Ministry and a state that felt it owed them little. Thousands of men were released in this way, left to face an uncertain future in their home communities. Others, who had no homes to return to or who had no means of support, were kept in the army, though not in active service. It was hardly a satisfying outcome for men whose lives had often been dominated by military values and imperial dreams, and it was made worse by the fact that their numbers were so dauntingly large.
For if , troops died during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, around a million returned in Men who had fought valiantly to defend their country were now reduced to a state of inactivity, left waiting for further orders, often without pay and condemned to nearindigence. It was an unenviable plight. Voices from the past 67 at around 20,, compared to only around 5, who were retained6 — with many of them left to face uncertainty and relative poverty.
The amounts of their pensions were decided by a military commission, whose task was to place each man in a category that would determine his pension and against whose decision he had no right of appeal. But there was worse. They were not allowed to leave their homes, were banished to their villages of birth, and refused permission to live in Paris or in any significant town; they were forbidden to travel freely without obtaining permission from the mayor of the commune where they lived. They did not enjoy any of the benefits of military life, yet they were permanently on call for possible army service, a call that never came.
For that reason during the early months of the Restoration they were also forbidden to search for work, a fact which further alienated them from local people and made it more difficult for them to be reinserted into civil society. The Bourbon monarchy, it was apparent, had little use for their talents or their military experience, while the new royalist chamber was more than happy to humiliate them and spy on them as enemies of the state.
Money, it might seem, was less of a problem than boredom, a sense of rejection, and the problems of reinsertion that were unavoidable after a quarter of a century of war, since the royalist government was keenly aware of the danger of creating a vast pool of discontent among the former troops. Benefits due for retirement and for the loss of limbs in service remained similarly unchanged, though — like the Directory and the Empire before — the Restoration monarchy did fall behind with pension payments in as a result of the heavy costs incurred through military occupation and of the need to pay reparations to the Allies.
Not all, however, were satisfied with their lot. Those who lost out most were those — largely ordinary infantrymen and non-commissioned officers — who had suffered lesser injuries and who now found themselves denied 6 7 Jean Vidalenc, Les demi-solde. And officers forced into retirement found their accustomed style of living dramatically undermined. Their pensions compared unfavourably with those in other European armies, and many saw the conditions in which they were forced to live as demeaning, their income levels humiliating. The former Napoleonic officers adjusted with wildly contrasting degrees of success to the challenge of civilian life.
There are plenty of individual success stories of men who accepted that their military career was over and turned to another, in trade and industry, in the professions, or in farming, finding without difficulty new roles in civil society. Among retired officers it is perhaps not surprising to find a clutch of teachers and clerks, notaries and smalltown lawyers.
More disturbing for the Restoration authorities, though, was the number of demi-soldes who found their way into public administration, holding office in town halls and village mairies or finding an outlet for their energies in elected positions, as mayors or juges de paix. As former soldiers they had travelled, seen different countries and been exposed to their cultures, broken down the relative autarchy of village life, qualities which won the admiration of many of their peers and made them natural notables in the post-war years.
As early as the reports from prefects throughout France drew attention to the large number of former Napoleonic officers who had found employment 8 9 10 Douglas Porch, Army and Revolution in France, — London, , pp. Vidalenc, Les demi-solde, pp. Returning soldiers who expected to be welcomed as heroes found their status undermined by the new regime, which added to the natural unease that was caused by the rapid release of so many men without jobs or means of support into the local economy. In regions where the Revolution had left bitter scars on local society — where religious fault lines ran deep or where memories of terror and counter-terror still divided families and communities — veterans might find themselves ostracised by their neighbours and blamed for the sins of their fathers.
In this orgy of revenge killings little attempt was made to distinguish those who had fought for the Revolution and those who had followed in their footsteps under the Empire, since, for committed royalists, support for the Emperor could seem an even greater crime against their legitimist ideals. Vilification was not the only factor that militated against an easy reintegration into society. Many former soldiers found it difficult to settle or to accept that their days of glory and adventure were now over. They remained footloose, poorly adapted to the needs of village or small-town France, irked by the petty irritants that the government set in their path or simply unable to adjust to the constraints of civilian life.
Long years in the army had made them impatient with the slow pace of village life, or had left them temperamentally unsuited to a repetitive daily routine. They craved further adventures and longed to move on. They missed the excitement of battle and the intense camaraderie of the regiment. Or, as former revolutionary militants who had sought both a career and a refuge in the armies after Thermidor, they now found themselves compromised by their radical republicanism and their sans-culotte sympathies in the period before Fructidor, making reconciliation with the restored monarchy well-nigh impossible.
They were deeply hurt by the rejection they had suffered at the hands of the Bourbons, the dismissal of their long years of service as unworthy and somehow dishonourable, seen as a testament to their fickleness and unreliability. Some sold their services as mercenaries, travelling abroad and offering their swords to rulers who would appreciate them more. A number ended their careers serving the Austrian Emperor, with whom the French regiments who had fought for Napoleon enjoyed an understandably high reputation. Others served in Persia, or retraced their steps to Egypt, still an eternal source of fascination for many whose loyalty to Napoleon remained intact and who were too compromised during the Hundred Days to dream of being granted pardons at home.
A few even served in the 15 16 Isser Woloch, Jacobin Legacy. Voices from the past 71 armies of the Ottoman Empire or onboard ships of the Turkish fleet. They now sought out new wars through which to pursue their dreams. Among the officers rejected by France after were men who were not just committed soldiers but also proven adventurers, men incapable of settling down to marriage and civilian careers, attracted by the promise of conquering new lands and opening up new frontiers. They had made a revolution that promised to liberate mankind, or had followed their Emperor to the ends of the earth, and their ambition and sense of adventure were not dimmed.
We find them in the years after scattered across the Atlantic world, exiles and refugees from France who now congregated in identifiable French colonies in Philadelphia and New Orleans, in Mexico and Peru. Some were given land grants by the United States government on newly conquered Indian territories in Louisiana and Alabama, in the colonies of the Vine and the Olive, lands that were shared between refugees from Saint-Domingue and fleeing veterans of the revolutionary and Napoleonic campaigns.
Among the most prominent French exiles who came to the Gulf Coast after were those the Bourbons could not forgive — Napoleonic officers who had rallied to the Empire under the Hundred Days, along with a smattering of unrepentant regicides, members of the National Convention of Others were simply young officers, deprived of their living back in Restoration France, seeking further adventure overseas, and angry with the Bourbon regime for insulting their military pedigree. Defeat and inactivity had dealt them a terrible blow, sufficient to alienate them from the new elites in France and drive them to seek their fortunes on the other side of the Atlantic.
Their thirst for adventure was unquenchable, and the challenge of turning the unyielding soil of the Tombigbee and Black Warrior river valleys into vineyards and olive 17 18 19 Vidalenc, Les demi-solde, pp. Rafe Blaufarb, Bonapartists in the Borderlands. The words are from an officer who went on to publish his account of his adventures, Just-Jean-Etienne Roy cited in Blaufarb, Bonapartists, p.
Some who had been soldiers all their professional lives saw little reason to exchange their swords for ploughshares, and it was not long before they were being recruited for new, ever more implausible causes. They dreamed of further glory, and did not hesitate to join forces with insurgent groups in Latin America or pirates in the Gulf. Lallemand was a natural leader for the idealistic dreamers of the Bonapartist cause, a man who was unable to settle down and content only when he was stirring insurrection or claiming territory for France.
Despite the vigorous publicity campaign they mounted in Alabama and among the various clusters of French and Domingan exiles, especially in New Orleans and Philadephia, the expedition was doomed to abysmal failure that rapidly turned to farce. Neither Spain nor the United States had any interest in encouraging a French claim to land which was still disputed territory, or in welcoming the intrusion of Bonapartist exiles in the borderlands of the American south-east.
If some found active roles in the civil society of the s, for others the end of the wars ushered in long years of enforced idleness that invited comparison with the past they had lived through and helped to shape. The contrast was made all the more striking in that, for most of the demi-soldes, their years of service had also been the years of their youth, years that were marked, in retrospect at least, by acts of daring and memories of comradeship. They had lived through exciting times — they were not alone in remarking that the years of the Revolution and Empire had been the most thrilling and the most life-enhancing of their age — and they often felt the need to write about them, to remind themselves of the historic events they had lived through, or to share their experiences with others, whether with their wives and brothers or their grandchildren, or, more generally, with posterity.
Voices from the past 73 his decision towards the end of his life to write about the war in his memoirs, retirement had provided an opportunity, and going back over such a glorious past was a way of giving him and those like him a new life, a second life once his active career was over. The passage of time did, of course, affect their memory and their mood, the degree to which they were able to distinguish between fact and fiction, the extent of their willingness to overlook unpleasant memories, their investment in the nineteenth-century legend of Napoleon.
Almost miraculously, it seemed, a new Napoleon was born, an emperor who was recreated in the face of all evidence as the champion of the Revolution, the legitimate heir to and the liberties of the French people. Every action of the Bourbons intensified the popular equation of Revolution and Empire — the destruction of liberty trees, the encouragement of Catholic missions, the removal of the tricolor from public buildings and the systematic rooting out of known republicans from positions of trust, all helped to forge new unity between those whose sympathies were with the Republic and those who harked back to the military glory of the Empire.
Amidst the hostile counter-propaganda of the Restoration years, and as a consequence of his opposition to the Bourbons during the Hundred Days, Napoleon was reborn as a liberal, an enemy of monarchy, a champion of individualism and progressive values. In their eyes there was a fundamental difference between the wars of the Revolution and Empire and the imperial wars of the restored Bourbons. The Return of the Ashes was a masterpiece of myth-making, an attempt by the state to present Napoleon as both a conquering hero who had saved France from invasion and as a son of the Revolution, true to the principles of the republic.
Significantly, it was as much the chauvinism of old revolutionaries as that of dedicated Bonapartists. The Return of the Ashes was a state occasion, with Louis-Philippe himself receiving the coffin back on the soil of France. The day belonged to the people, linked for all time to the army and the memory of the soldiers who had fought so long and so bravely in the cause of the patrie. Building a Tomb for Napoleon, —61 Kent, Ohio, , p. Voices from the past 75 would peak at various moments during the early nineteenth century.
There was a ready readership for memoirs — especially memoirs of army life — and there was always the temptation to tell the story their audience wanted to hear, to invent or fabricate, or at the very least to add colour and drama to what might otherwise be a bald tale.
But others were liberally laced with invention, with the consequence that the French reading public was fed a highly romanticised view of these wars, a view which placed great emphasis on individual sacrifice, on the role of chivalry and courage, and on the pursuit of glory. Some generals and politicians hired writers to express their views by proxy, or sold their name to publishers eager to tell of new discoveries and insights. Others gave authors permission to use their notebooks as they saw fit.
A few were composed with little reference to the supposed author. Where there were no personal papers to draw upon, then words, phrases, whole chapters could simply be forged and reactions and emotions imagined. But nineteenth-century readers had no such qualms; nor were they necessarily driven by a desire to establish the truth.
False memoirs, or those lavishly embroidered in retirement by officers eager to set the record straight, served to corroborate the views they already held and to give further credence of an idealised vision of the war years. Tulard, Nouvelle bibliographie critique, p. They were also formed by the writings that had been left behind by revolutionary officers and soldiers, those writings which found their way into the hands of civilians and which did so much to forge their perceptions of the army of the Year II.
Memoirs formed an essential part in the process of constructing long-term memory, the memory that would be revived under the Third Republic and in the years of preparation for the Great War. But they were only one part, a final building block in a longer process. They seldom destroyed the stereotyped view of war that was already formed in nineteenth-century French minds. Rather they built on existing images, adding detail and a wealth of illustrative anecdote to popular impressions, and producing a convincing narrative of experience. Memoirs helped to bring that experience alive to new generations, to men and women whose forebears might have fought at Valmy or in Egypt but who had not lived through the events described and were therefore reading them as history.
They were appreciated for their sense of adventure, for the exploits they related, and for the vicarious pleasure that here in their pages history was being made. More than most writings, they gave encouragement to feelings of nostalgia for a world that was now lost, a world, moreover, often tenderly evoked years, sometimes decades, after the events they described.
Besides, some had scores to settle, the bitterness of exile to expunge. Amidst the fierce polemical debates of the early nineteenth century it was increasingly difficult to be neutral in the depiction of the revolutionary decade, or of the Empire, or the wars fought in their name. C'est ainsi que nous avons ete amene a etudier le probleme dans son ensemble, tel qu'il se pose pour tout reacteur a uranium naturel.
Ce travail traite principalement du domaine des mesures a caractere nucleaire et s'etend dans le domaine des mesures thermodynamque de niveaux, etc Dans le domaine de mesures nucleaires , nous indiquons principalement les realisations et les resultats obtenus pour les detecteurs de neutrons thermiques et pour la mesure de courants d'ionisations. Nous traitons egalement du probleme technique du demarrage d'un reacteur et du probleme de la mesure de la reactivite. Nous donnons les details necessaires a la comrehension de tous les schemas et plans de cablages essentiels mis au point, en particulier, pour le reacteur de Saclay.
Chemical elimination of alumina in suspension in nuclear reactors heavy water; Elimination de l'alumine en suspension dans l'eau lourde des reacteurs nucleaires par voie chimique. Corrosion of aluminium in contact with moderating water in nuclear reactor leads to the formation of an alumina hydrosol which can have an adverse effect on the operation of the reactor. Several physical methods have been used in an attempt to counteract this effect.
The method proposed here consists in the elimination of the aluminium by dissolution and subsequent fixation in the ionic form on mixed-bed ion-exchange resin. In order to do this, the parameters and the values of these parameters most favorable to the dissolution process have been determined. If the moderator is heavy water, the deuterated acid can be prepared by converting a solution in heavy water to a salt of the acid using a deuterated cationic resin. Plusieurs methodes physiques ont ete mises en oeuvre pour pallier ces inconvenients. On propose ici d'eliminer l'alumine par solubilisation pour la fixer ensuite sous forme ionique par des resines echangeuses d'ions, en lit melange.
A cette fin on determine les parametres et leurs grandeurs favorables a cette solubilisation. Si le moderateur est de l'eau lourde la preparation d'acide deutere peut etre effectuee par passage d'une solution en eau lourde a un sel de l'acide sur resine cationique deuteree. Study and installation of concrete shielding in the civil engineering of nuclear construction ; Etude et mise en place des betons de protection dans le genie civil des ouvrages nucleaires Des specifications sont donnees pour les betons de barytine et pour la fabrication des blocs de protection du synchrotron a protons 'Saturne'.
Application of neutron activation analysis to the study of impurities in molybdenum, tungsten and nuclear graphite; Application de l'analyse par activation neutronique a l'etude des impuretes dans le molybdene, le tungstene et le graphite nucleaire. A neutron activation method is described for the analysis of a maximum number of foreign elements in molybdenum, tungsten and graphite.
By this method are dosed 27 elements in molybdenum and tungsten, and 20 elements in graphite to which can be added those elements which are already the object of routine analysis: Par cette methode, on dose 27 elements dans le molybdene et le tungstene, 20 elements dans le graphite, auxquels on peut encore ajouter les elements doses couramment: Nuclear study of Melusine; Etude nucleaire de Melusine.
In this report are reviewed - with respect to starting of experiments - the main nuclear characteristics of a 20 per cent enriched uranium lattice, with light water as moderator and reflector. The reactor is to operate at 1 MW. Control rods and of a stainless steel regulating rod.
Ce reacteur devra fonctionner a 1 MW. Efficacite des barres de controle en cadmium et d'une barre de reglage en acier inoxydable. Contribution to the study of the fission-gas release in metallic nuclear fuels; Contribution a l'etude du degagement des gaz de fission dans les combustibles nucleaires metalliques. In order to study the effect of an external pressure on the limitation of swelling due to fission-gas precipitation, some irradiations have been carried out at burn-ups of about A cylindrical central hole allows a fuel swelling from 20 to 33 per cent according to the experiment.
After irradiation, the uranium samples showed two types of can rupture: The cans of the uranium-molybdenum samples are all undamaged and it is shown that the gas release occurs by interconnection of the bubbles for swelling values higher than those obtained in the case of uranium. For each type of fuel, a swelling-fission gas release relationship is established. The results suggest that good performances with a metallic fuel intended for use in fast reactor conditions can be obtained.
Un trou cylindrique central permet au combustible de gonfler librement de 20 a 33 pour cent suivant les cas. Apres irradiation les echantillons d'uranium presentent deux types de ruptures de gaine: Les gaines des echantillons d'alliage uranium-molybdene sont toutes intactes et l'on montre que le relachement des gaz opere par interconnexion des bulles pour des valeurs de gonflement plus elevees que dans. Separation of Graphitic Line in Debyegram of the Reactor Graphite; Separation de la raie graphitique dans le debyegramme du graphite nucleaire ; Otdelenie linii grafita v debaiegramme reaktornogo grafita; Separacion de la linea grafitica en el diagrama de debye del grafito nuclear.
The method consists of the mathematical correction of the diffraction profile obtained by means of a Philips diffractometer with scintillation counter. All instrumental errors except that of the sample adsorption are eliminated using corresponding slits. Sample adsorption is corrected mathematically. Highly symmetrical lines of graphitic and non-graphitic phase could be analytically separated from such corrected line profiles. Il s'agit d'une methode mathematique de correction du profil de la raie de diffraction , obtenu par le diffractometre Philips avec un compteur a scintillation.
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Le choix des ouvertures elimine toutes les erreurs, sauf l'erreur d'absorption dans les echantillons, que l 'on ecarte mathematiquement. Les raies de diffraction pures et tres symetriques des phases graphitique et non graphitique peuvent etre separees du profil corrige de cette facon. Consiste en corregir matematicamente el perfil de la linea de difraccion obtenido con un difractometro Philips y un contador de centelleo. Also, there is more precise nuclear data for the stable fission products.
Of the stable isotopes produced during the fission process, zirconium, molybdenum, ruthenium, and neodymium appear to be the most useful. The proposed non-destructive methods using stable isotopes will be discussed. L'ideal serait de pouvoir analyser le combustible a l'aide d'une methode ne necessitant pas de renseignements particuliers sur les spectres des neutrons, le schema d'irradiation ou le temps de refroidissement. Les isotopes radioactifs et les isotopes stables resultant du processus de fission qui sont presents dans un element combustible irradie caracterisent son irradiation.
Malheureusement, que l'analyse soit effectuee au moyen de methodes destructives ou non destructives, les resultats obtenus varient en fonction du spectre de neutrons, du schema d'irradiation et du temps de refroidissement. Deplus, l'absence de donnees nucleaires precises, comme les valeurs des section efficaces, influe sur tous les calculs qui peuvent etre effectues. L'analyse non destructive est egalement genee par la presence de champs de rayonnements intenses qui augmentent le bruit de fond. Il est difficile d'etablir des normes utiles et realistes. Bien que, dans l'etat actuel de la technique, les methodes non destructives n'aient pas toute la precision et l'exactitude voulues, elles presentent neanmoins un grand interet' notamment dans les cas ou il faut obtenir rapidement et economiquement une valeur approximative du taux de combustion.
Plusieurs methodes non destructives d'evaluation du taux de combustion sont actuellement appliquees, a l'etude ou en projet. Plusieurs types de spectrometres sont utilises pour la mesure du rayonnement. Nuclear explosion and internal contamination; Explosion nucleaire et contamination interne. By the study of the conditions of internal contamination due to the radioactive mixture produced by a nuclear explosion, the parts played by the relative weights of the different elements and the mode of expression of the doses are considered.
Only the knowledge of the weight composition of the contamination mixture and of its evolution as a function of time can provide the required basis for the study of its metabolism in the organism. The curves which give the composition of the fission product mixture - in number of nuclei - - as a function of time - have been established. These curves are applied to some practical examples, particularly relative to the nature of contamination, radiotoxicity of some elements and assessment of hazards. La connaissance de la composition en 'masse' du melange contaminant et de son evolution en fonction du temps peut seule apporter les bases necessaires a l'etude de son comportement dans l'organisme.
Les courbes donnant la composition du melange de produits de fission - en nombre de noyaux - - en fonction du temps - ont ete etablies. Quelques applications pratiques, relatives en particulier a la nature de la contamination, a la radiotoxicite de certains elements et a l'evaluation de risque, sont envisagees a titre d'exemple. The formation of scientists and technicians at the 'Centre d'Etudes Nucleaires ' at Saclay; Formation des scientifiques et des techniciens au Centre d'Etudes Nucleaires de Saclay.
La formation des scientifiques et des chercheurs est une des activites importantes du Centre d'Etudes Nucleaires de Saclay. Sans perdre son efficacite technique, elle revet des formes souples et variees adaptees a la diversite des buts a atteindre. A mathematical model for cost of maritime transport. Application to competitiveness of nuclear vessels; Modele mathematique du cout de transport maritime application a la competitivite du navire nucleaire. In studying the competitiveness of a nuclear merchant vessel, economic assessments in terms of figures were discarded in favor of a simplified model, which gives a clearer idea of the mechanism of the comparison between alternative vessels and the particular influence of each parameter.
An expression is formulated for the unit cost per ton carried over a given distance as a function of the variables speed and deadweight tonnage and is used to determine the optima for conventional and nuclear vessels.
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- La ferme de la Baconnerie (Vacation Home), Sainte-Marguerite-dʼElle (France) Deals.
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To represent the freight market involved in the optimization studies, and thus in the competitiveness computation, two cases are taken into account: In both cases the optima are calculated and compared for a conventional and a nuclear vessel. Competitiveness curves are plotted as a function of the ratios of nuclear and conventional fuel costs and nuclear and conventional marginal power costs. These curves express the limiting values of the above two ratios for which the transport costs of the nuclear and conventional vessels are equal.
The competitiveness curves vary considerably according to the hypothesis adopted for the freight market and the limit of tonnage carried annually. Nous etablissons une expression du cout unitaire de la tonne transportee sur un parcours donne en fonction des variables vitesse et port en lourd. Et nous l'utilisons pour determiner les optima des navires classiques et nucleaires. Pour representer le marche du fret qui intervient dans les etudes d'optimisation, et donc dans la recherche de la.
An absolute nuclear magnetic resonance magnetometer; Magnetometre absolu a resonance magnetique nucleaire. After an introduction in which the various work undertaken since the discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance is rapidly reviewed, the author describes briefly In the first chapter three types of NMR magnetometers, giving the advantages and disadvantages of each of them and deducing from this the design of the apparatus having the greatest number of qualities Chapter II is devoted to the crossed coil nuclear oscillator which operates continuously over a wide range gamma.
Chapter III deals with frequency measurements. The report finishes with a conclusion and a few recordings. Le chapitre II est consacre a l'oscillateur nucleaire a bobines croisees permettant un fonctionnement continu dons une large plage gamma. Le chapitre III traite la mesure de frequence. Une conclusion et quelques enregistrements terminent ce travail.
Following on theoretical work already published, an indium-gallium radiation contour of the IRT nuclear reactor has been prepared, and represents a powerful new source of gamma-radiation. The paper gives the activation calculations for indium-gallium alloy; the structural components of RK-1 and their arrangement in the reactor tank and the hot cell; the devise for feeding liquid and gaseous substances into the irradiation zone; and the conveyor for solid substances to be irradiated.
When the IRT reactor is at a power of kW, the radiation strength of the contour is equivalent to that of a gamma-emitter having an activity of 20, g. The prospects for the use of the indium-gallium radiation contour for research and semi-industrial purposes are discussed.
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Les auteurs donnent les calculs de l'activation pour l'alliage indium-gallium; ils indiquent les elements structurels du RK-1 et leur disposition dans le reservoir et dans la cellule de haute activite du reacteur; ils decrivent le dispositif permettant d'introduire des substances liquides et gazeuses dans la zone d'irradiation et le systeme qui transporte les substances solides a irradier.
Lorsque le reacteur IRT fonctionne a 2 kW, la puissance de rayonnement du circuit equivaut a celle d'un emetteur gamma ayant une activite equivalente a 20 grammes de radium. Les auteurs examinent les perspectives d'emploi de ce processus pour la recherche et a des fins semi. Nuclear biological studies in France; Les etudes de biologie nucleaires en France. On the occasion of a colloquium on radiobiological research programmes, a number of documents dealing with French accomplishments and projects in this field were collected together.
We felt that it would be useful to assemble these papers in one report; although they are brief and leave gaps to be filled in, they provide certain data, give an overall view of the situation, and can also suggest a rough plan for the general policy to adopt in the field of 'nuclear' biological research; i. Il nous a semble utile de reunir en un rapport l'ensemble de ces documents, qui, malgre leur brievete et malgre les lacunes qu'ils comportent, donnent un certain nombre d'informations, permettent une vue d'ensemble et peuvent dessiner aussi l'ebauche d'une politique coherente en matiere de recherches biologiques ' nucleaires ', c'est-a-dire de recherches basees sur la methode des indicateurs nucleaires ou consacrees a l'action des rayonnements ionisants.
Le transfert des informations au service de comptabilite des matieres nucleaires est assure au moyen d'un systeme de fiches qui accompagnent les matieres: L'analyse statistique est largement utilisee pour verifier les mesures et reduire au minimum le nombre d'analyses chimiques.
La ferme de la Baconnerie (Holiday home), Sainte-Marguerite-dʼElle (France) deals
Toutefois, l'application des statistiques n'a pas donne de bons resultats pour l'evaluation des erreurs d'inventaire. Le memoire etudie de maniere detaillee les methodes de controle des matieres indiquees plus haut et certains des problemesiqu'elles posent. El proceso de recuperacion consiste en un tren semicontinuo de operaciones unitarias: El equipo de tratamiento y almacena - miento es de dimensiones restringidas para evitar la criticidad y tiene una capacidad combinada de varios centenares de kg de uranio enriquecido al mes.
El material sometido a las operaciones de recuperacion proviene tanto de la planta como de otras instalaciones que la CEA posee en los Estados Unidos. Este material incluye practicamente todos los tipos de residuos de uranio enriquecido sin irradiar. El control fisico se ejerce satisfactoriamente. Contribution to the study of thermal mixing between nuclear spin systems; Contribution a l'etude du melange thermique entre systemes de spins nucleaires.
This work describes methods of dynamic nuclear polarization in solids based on the thermal mixing between nuclear spin systems. The description of the thermal mixing processes involves most of the fundamental aspects of the spin temperature theory. The experiments, conducted with paradichlorobenzene and para-dibromobenzene, yield a detailed confirmation of the theoretical predictions.
La description des processus de melange thermique met en jeu la plupart des aspects fondamentaux de la theorie de la temperature de spin. Les experiences, realisees avec du paradichlorobenzene et du paradibromobenzene, apportent une confirmation detaillee des previsions theoriques. Application to nuclear instrumentation ; Generateur d'impulsions aleatoires.
Application a l'instrumentation nucleaire This report describes a random pulses generator adapted to nuclear instrumentation. After a short survey on the statistical nature of electronic signals, the different ways for generating pulses with a Poisson's time-distribution are studied. The final generator built from a gaseous thyratron in a magnetic field is then described. Several tests are indicated: Applications of the generator in 'whole testing' of nuclear instrumentation are then indicated for sealers, dead time measurements, time analyzers.
In this application, pulse-height spectrums have been made by Poissonian sampling of a recurrent or random low-frequency signal. Apres un bref rappel sur la nature statistique des signaux en electronique nucleaire , sont passes en revue les principaux moyens d'obtenir des impulsions distribuees en temps suivant une loi de Poisson. Le generateur utilisant un thyratron a gaz dans un champ magnetique est ensuite decrit; diverses methodes de test sont appliquees stabilite du taux de comptage, criterium de Pearson, spectre des intervalles ds temps. Les applications du generateur a l'electronique nucleaire dans le domaine des 'essais globaux' sont indiques: Pour cette derniere application, on a realise des spectres d'amplitudes suivant une loi connue, par echantillonnage poissonien d'un signal basse frequence recurrent ou aleatoire.
Nuclear power in our societies; Le nucleaire dans nos societes. Hiroshima, Chernobyl, Fukushima Daiichi are the well known sad milestones on the path toward a broad development of nuclear energy. They are so well known that they have blurred certainly for long in a very unfair way the positive image of nuclear energy in the public eye.
The impact of the media appetite for disasters favours the fear and puts aside all the achievements of nuclear sciences like nuclear medicine for instance and all the assets of nuclear power like the quasi absence of greenhouse gas emission or its massive capacity to produce electricity or heat. The unique solution to enhance nuclear acceptance is the reduction of the fear through a better understanding of nuclear sciences by the public. The ablative efficiency is optimized by cures iodine should be extended until the Tg remains high. Evolution of nuclear chemical industry in France; Evolution de l'industrie chimique nucleaire en France.
Faire bien, vite et rentable sont les buts recherches. Ces objectifs sont atteints grace a une collaboration intime des grands services de l'etat et de l'industrie privee. Ce gros effort s'exerce principalement dans les voies suivantes: Cet expose aura montre l'ampleur de l'effort deploye par une industrie chimique nucleaire jeune, dynamique et en plein essor. Ayant assure ses techniques, realise de nombreuses installations, elle est largement en etat de faire face au programme atomique fran is. En outre, elle est capable et desireuse d'etre associee aux developpements de l'industrie atomique etrangere notamment dans te cadre de l'Euratom et d.
France's nuclear power programme; Le programme nucleaire francais. Les centrales nucleaires doivent permettre de diminuer ce deficit si un certain nombre d'incertitudes actuelles sont levees. En meme temps, les etudes se poursuivent dans cette meme filiere et laissent entrevoir les possibilites d'utiliser un nouvel element combustible annulaire dont l'emploi ameliorerait notablement les performances d'EDF 5. Les etudes d'un reacteur de MWe de cette filiere ont deja commence. Ainsi, les connaissances techniques et economiques acquises dans ces diverses. Communication Received from Certain Member States Regarding Guidelines for Transfers of Nuclear-related Dual-use Equipment, Material, Software and Related Technology; Communication recue de certains Etats Membres concernant les directives applicables aux transferts d'equipements, de matieres et de logiciels a double usage dans le domaine nucleaire , ainsi que de technologies connexes.
Cette lettre apporte des informations supplementaires sur les Directives de ces gouvernements applicables aux transferts nucleaires. Neutron noise in nuclear reactors; Le bruit neutronique des reacteurs nucleaires. The power of a nuclear reactor, in the operating conditions, presents fluctuations due to various causes. This random behaviour can be included in the study of 'noises'. Among other sources of noise, we analyse hereafter the fluctuations due: The method which we present makes use of the analogies between the rules governing a nuclear reactor in operation and a number of radio-electrical systems, in particular the feed-back loops.
The reactor can be characterized by its 'passing band' and is described as a system submitted to a sequence of random pulses. In non linear operating condition, the effect of neutron noise is defined by means of a non-linear functional, this theory is thus related to previous works the references of which are given at the end of the present report.
This leads us in particular in the case of nuclear reactors to some results given by A. Blaquiere in the case of radio-electrical loops. Ce comportement aleatoire rentre dans le cadre general de l'etude des 'bruits'. Entre autres sources ce bruit, nous analysons ici les fluctuations dues: La methode que nous introduisons exploite les analogies entre les lois qui regissent un reacteur nucleaire au regime et certains systemes radioelectriques, en particulier les circuits a boucle de reaction. Le reacteur est caracterise par sa 'bande passante' et est decrit comme un systeme soumis a une succession d'impulsions aleatoires.
Dans les conditions de fonctionnement non lineaires, l'effet du bruit neutronique est precise en utilisant une fonctionnelle non lineaire, ce qui relie cette theorie a. Geological survey of the cavities; Explosions nucleaires souterraines etude geologique des cavites. A geological survey of underground nuclear explosions makes it possible to determine the main characteristics of the cavity formed. The lower portion is spherical; the same was very likely true of the roof, which collapses in the majority of media with the exception of rock-salt.
Its radius, for a given bomb size, can vary by a factor of two according to the type of rock. The lay-out of its contents depends on the characteristics of the solid and liquid products at the moment of the roof collapse; according to the medium involved, mixing of the rubble and the mud-flow occurs granite or does not occur tuff and alluvia. In all media, the average physical properties can be evaluated.
Sa partie inferieure est spherique; il en etait vraisemblablement de meme de sa voute, effondree dans la plupart des milieux a l'exception du sel gemme. Son rayon, a energie d'engin egale, varie selon les roches du simple au double. La disposition de son contenu depend des caracteristiques des produits solides et liquides au moment de la chute du toit; selon le cas, il n'y a pas tuf et alluvions ou il y a granite melange des eboulis et des laves.
Dans tous les milieux, les proprietes physiques moyennes peuvent etre evaluees. French research in the field of nuclear agronomy; Les recherches francaises en agronomie nucleaire. Guerin De Montgareuil, P. The role of the Commissariat a l'Energie Atomique is defined: Its part in the field has recently found expression in the creation, within the Biology Department, of a Radio-agronomy Section; its objective are described,, as well as the, means placed att its disposal at the Centre d'etudes Nucleaires , Cadarache.
Une telle differenciation recouvre de moins en moins, au fur et a mesure de l'evolution des programmes, la distinction qui est faite dans l'expose entre l'action biologique des rayonnements et les autres emplois des techniques nucleaires. C'est ainsi que les recherches do radiogenetique agricole sont poursuivies dans deux directions: Les problemes de destruction des insectes eradication et de conservation des denrees sous irradiation se trouvent egalement abordes par des voies et avec des objectifs tres divers. A la demarche globale representee par une irradiation pure et simple grains humides, pommes de terre Study of the chimney produced by an underground nuclear explosion; Etude de la cheminee creee par une explosion nucleaire souterraine.
Underground nuclear explosions lead to the formation of a cavity which is roughly of spherical shape. The roof of this cavity is unstable and collapses in most cases, leading to the formation of a chimney. The height and the diameter depend on the energy of the charge and on the nature of the surroundings. The chronology of the various stages can be determined by seismic observations. The interior of the chimney is filled, either partially or completely, with rubble earth. This phenomenon is of great importance as far as the use of nuclear explosions for industrial applications is concerned.
La voute de cette cavite est instable et s'effondre dans la plupart des cas, donnant lieu a la formation d'une cheminee. La hauteur et le diametre sont fonction de l'energie du tir et de la nature du milieu. La chronologie des evenements peut etre determinee par des observations seismiques. L'interieur des cheminees est occupe, en partie ou en totalite, par des eboulis. Ce phenomene presente un grand interet pour l'utilisation des explosions nucleaires a des fins industrielles.
College Students' Intention to Intervene. The objective of this article was to examine college students' intention to intervene with a suicidal individual and examine the Willingness to Intervene against Suicide questionnaire WIS. The data were analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis, reliability analysis, and multiple regression. It was found that the WIS significantly predicted intention to intervene with a suicidal individual. The WIS was internally consistent with adequate goodness-of-fit indices for three of the four sub-scales.
The WIS is an effective tool for predicting intention to intervene ; however, the subjective norms sub-scale should be revised to improve the model. In radiographing thick welds, betatrons of Czechoslovak manufacture are used. The paper describes the methods used for testing and the results obtained and compares the Czechoslovak MeV betatron with the Siemens' betatron. En raison des specifications rigoureuses auxquelles doivent repondre les methodes de construction et d'assemblage de la cuve du reacteur, en acier inoxydable faiblement allie de grande epaisseur mm , il a fallu elaborer une methode de controle non destructif du materiau de base et des soudures, fondes sur l'emploi de ' temoins '.
Pour controler la qualite du materiau de base et des sourdures, on utilise essentiellement des ultrasons puises et une sonde. Le memoire decrit les methodes d'essais et l'evaluation des donnees au cours de l'examen du materiau de base, ainsi que le procede qui permet de verifier la qualite des soudures electriques a scorie, des soudures en atmosphere de gaz carbonique et des soudures a l'arc faites a la main. Le controle des plaques forgees et laminees se fait au moyen d'un dispositif automatique de defectoscopie qui a ete mis au point en Tchecoslovaquie.
Ce dispositif se compose de deux parties: Il comprend plusieurs elements inedits. On a compense l'effet de la distance sur l'ampleur du signal declenche par un defaut de maniere que cette ampleur reste constante. On a compense aussi l'effet du aux irregularites de la liaison acoustique, les impulsions etant communiquees a un dispositif d'enregistrement a distance. L'importance du defaut est evalue a l'aide d'unattenuateur. On metau point un dispositif automatique pour controler une surface cylindrique verticale.
Les soudures d'assemblage circulaire doivent etre verifiees a une temperature elevee. Dans les usines V. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui apakah Empowering Empowering Leadership berpengaruh atau tidak terhadap Team Performance Management dengan Team Cohesion sebagai variabel intervening di restoran Hachi-Hachi Surabaya. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa Empowering Leadership berpengaruh t Statistical treatment of data. Application to nuclear electronics; Traitement des informations en regime statistique.
Applications a l'electronique nucleaire. In this report the data of probability calculations are applied to the analyses of counting losses in experiments on chance events encountered in nuclear physics. The distribution of time intervals according to Poisson's law is studied and various applications of this are given: La distribution des intervalles de temps suivant une loi de Poisson est etudiee et differentes applications en sont donnees: Siloette, Siloe mock-up; Siloette, modele nucleaire de siloe. Siloette is the Siloe mock-up. The main installations are described: Precis ions are given about precautions taken for using spent fuel elements.
On decrit ses diverses installations: Des precisions sont donnees sur les precautions prises pour y utiliser des elements uses. Study of some continuous spectra produced by nuclear reactions with light nuclei; Etude de quelques spectres continus produits par reactions nucleaires avec des noyaux legers. The continuous spectra coming from several nuclear reactions with light nuclei were measured. A mechanism was proposed to explain their spectra based on the following assumptions: The calculated spectra and those measured are in good agreement.
Les spectres calcules avec ces hypotheses et les spectres mesures sont en bon accord. Possibilities and limitations of analogue methods for studying the dynamics of nuclear power stations; Possibilites et limitations du calcul analogique pour les etudes dynamiques de centrales nucleaires. A simulator requiring both digital and analogue methods is described.
The study of a nuclear power station: The part played by ordinary computing elements for the simulation of the different servomechanism transfer functions is considered and process of regulation is outlined. II est donc possible de faire le point des differentes applications de la technique analogique dans ce domaine. Elle est particulierement active dans le foie. Le Liver X Receptor LXR est un recepteur nucleaire de classe II qui est implique dans la regulation de l'expression de genes importants dans cette voie metabolique. Health problems raised by the elimination of radioactive wastes and nuclear accidents; Problemes sanitaires poses par l'elimination des dechets radioactifs et par les accidents nucleaires.
The rapid development of nuclear energy demands an urgent solution to the health problems arising from the discharge into the environment of radioactive residues produced by nuclear installations. The incorporation of radioelements in food cycles is the first risk to take into consideration. Each holiday home features a living room with seating area and a dining area. There is also a kitchen equipped with a dishwasher, an oven and a washing machine. La ferme de la Baconnerie features free WiFi. This pet-friendly property also offers grocery delivery and banquet facilities can be reserved at an extra cost.
A reception room for 50 people is available upon request. You can play table tennis at the property, and the area is popular for hiking. Caen Carpiquet Airport is Guests are happier about it compared to other properties in the area. Guests are getting more for their money when compared to other properties in this city. La ferme de la Baconnerie has been welcoming Booking.
We're sorry, but there was an error submitting your comment. Highly rated by recent guests 8. This holiday home has a oven, tumble dryer and private entrance. We're sorry, but there was an error submitting your response. This holiday home features a tumble dryer, sofa and toaster. This holiday home has a private entrance, stovetop and electric kettle. This holiday home features a microwave, private entrance and DVD player. WiFi is available in the hotel rooms and is free of charge.
Free private parking is possible on site reservation is not needed. Sorry, but it seems like something went wrong in submitting this. Would you mind trying again?
- Dictionnaire biographique des Français d'AFN de René Mayer.
- Four Widows.
- Christian Spiritual Warfare Volume 3.
- Maria Montessori - Ein Leben für die Kinder (German Edition);
You'll need to let the property know in advance what time you'll arrive. Cancellation and prepayment policies vary according to room type. Please enter the dates of your stay and check the conditions of your required room. Children and extra beds. All children under 16 years stay free of charge for extra beds. All further older children or adults stay free of charge for extra beds. Please inform La ferme de la Baconnerie in advance of your expected arrival time. You can use the Special Requests box when booking, or contact the property directly with the contact details provided in your confirmation.
A damage deposit of EUR is required on arrival. You should be reimbursed on check-out. La localisation, l'environnement et les efforts de la mandataire pour nous accueillir au mieux. Accommodations were lovely and spacious for our large group! It was a bit difficult to get a hold of the person who was checking us in and providing the keys, luckily we found lovely neighbors who helped get a hold of her.
We had communicated by email and text and thought she would meet us there at a designated time, but she was not there and we were unable to reach her by text. Everything just a small note couldn't find a cork screw and was told off for using the BBQ. We were only staying one night and had to pack all this extra stuff into an already packed car. Cute and lots of space for our group. A quiet village location but easy access to all the sites in Normandy.
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Vacation Home La ferme de la Baconnerie, Sainte-Marguerite-dʼElle, France - theranchhands.com
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