Because of this link to the domain of pragmatics and stylistics, the topic touches upon one of the main problems that studies in historical grammar face when attempting to explain linguistic variation. The resources available to us, although limited, are not negligible.
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In fact, information relevant to variation can be obtained from differences in use corresponding to: In the following sections, I focus both on the strictly grammatical properties of the possessive constructions, as well as on pragmatic and stylistic aspects relating to the three factors just mentioned. In both cases, I attempt to combine a quantitative and qualitative analyses.
Prenominal possessive constructions As mentioned above, Possessives are classified from a phonological perspective as stressed and unstressed or strong and weak, full and contracted. The stressed possessives have a full paradigm. The unstressed ones have a defective paradigm, consisting only of forms denoting a single possessor. These differences are indicated in Table 1 in the singular masculine forms. Formal paradigm of possessives M. With respect to the main concern here, unstressed possessives behave like determiners, since they are in complementary distribution with the definite article and, like it, they contribute a definite sense to the noun phrase NP in which they appear.
Where are your riches lit. With respect to the main concern here, in prenominal position they can appear preceded by an article, as other stressed possessives 4a , or without one, as unstressed possessives 4b. Italian and Old Portuguese show a diferent pattern.
English - Catalan
As can be seen in examples i - iii , medieval Italian allows the use of unstressed and stressed possessives with and without an article Giusti Medieval Spanish, on the other hand, allows the use of unstressed and stressed possessives ater an article and with few exceptions the unstressed possessives without an article Eberenz Functional paradigm of possessives For ease of exposition, I refer to unstressed possessives and stressed possessives denoting multiple possessors used as determiners as possessives without an article i.
The alternation of the two constructions Both prenominal constructions are found from the earliest texts in the language, as can be seen in the following passage from the Llibre dels Judicis: Additionally, we may note that the predominance of the construction without article is very clear even in some 16th-century works, contrary to what we might expect if we consider the residual character of this construction in contemporary Catalan. I return to these data below.
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I note here merely that frequency varies from work to work, although in general the two constructions were stable throughout the Middle Ages. The alternation of the two constructions in Catalan has been little studied, in part because of the scarcity of studies in historical syntax in general,7 but also in part because of the complexity of the topic and the lack of clear patterns that justify the variation. Certainly, this is the intuition that we contemporary readers have of the medieval texts. In fact, one can easily see that this intuition is clearly supported by many examples. It is not surprising, then, to observe that both constructions may alternate in the same sentence, even with the same noun: Llull, Doctrina [14th c.
If both constructions are stable throughout 7 In the historical grammars of Badia []: In the majority of the linguistic studies that appear in editions of medieval texts, the alternation of the two constructions is mentioned and exempliied, though generally the motivation for the variation is not discussed Miralles And, if this is so, what might the nature of these tendencies be: Differences in markedness Articles and possessives offer some very clear similarities, suggesting that one group of possessives underwent a process of cliticization similar to that of the Romance article, and ended up in the new Romance category of determiners.
Articles, specifically, form a category that contributes uniqueness to the NP, this uniqueness being recoverable from previous discourse or the communicative context Rigau Possessives also contribute uniqueness to the NP to the extent that they limit the extension of the NP by connecting it to one of the participants of the speech act if it is 1st or 2nd person or to an element having appeared in previous discourse if it is 3rd person. Nevertheless, the article and the possessives also show some clear differences, and it is these differences that explain how stressed possessives can appear along with the definite article in the same NP.
The article is the minimum determiner and it simply expresses uniqueness, while the possessive has a pronominal character and may appear in NPs with an indefinite character, as in 3b and 3c commented on above. Starting from these properties and differences, the differences in grammaticalization as well as the differences in markedness between the two possessive constructions can also be delimited.
Anthony de Mello (1931–1987)
The unstressed possessives are more grammaticalized than the stressed ones Lapesa In contrast to stressed possessives, unstressed ones a have undergone greater formal erosion; b have lost their word accent; c show a defective paradigm, and d are more fixed syntactically. These differences, moreover, are parallel to the differences in markedness that the two possessive constructions show. Specifically, the construction without article, and with the unstressed possessive when possible see Table 2 , has a more neutral character, or is less marked, inasmuch as the possessive takes on two functions: In Table 4, the grammaticalization and markedness differences between the two possessives in Old Catalan are indicated: Grammaticalization and markedness differences It seems reasonable to suggest that the differences between the two types of possessives are reflected in their use in discourse.
In the pages that follow, I attempt to add support to this idea, focusing fundamentally on the restrictions that apply to the more marked construction. Specifically, I assume that, because of the markedness differences mentioned, the unstressed possessives show fewer restrictions in prenominal position than the stressed possessives, and generally can appear in all contexts.
The stressed possessives, in contrast, are less frequent, show more restrictions and are used in semantically, pragmatically, and stylistically marked contexts. To test the importance of this factor, I have analyzed the use of nouns documented with third person singular possessives in ten medieval works belonging to distinct genres and time periods. Only those nouns that appear in more than one work or those that are repeatedly used in the same work are included. To state it in positive terms: In this respect, we note that the first four groups of nouns have an abstract character; the fifth group has a locative and collective character; the sixth contains proper names, and the last five have, in general, a concrete character but are associated with an elevated conceptual sphere in a medieval perspective.
Use of possessives with nouns referring to family relations As can be seen in Table 6, these are nouns that show a high overall frequency of use in possessive constructions. Weisheitsgeschichten 2 copies Call to Love: Silence, Peace, Joy 1 copy La preghiera della rana: Reflexiones de Anthony de Mello 1 copy Sapersi guardare dentro.
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Sadhana Institute of Pastoral Counseling. Links De Mello Spirituality Center.
See below for the names of these programs which are available on audio CD and film. He traveled to many countries to study and later to teach, most notably Spain and the United States. One can actually listen to a live de Mello Conference, "Wake Up to Life", the only full-length Conference he ever allowed to be recorded. Listeners across the globe, have found the program to be life-changing.
It also includes many principles of psychology and psychotherapy; both of which de Mello practiced in his life. His main objective in the program is "Awareness", waking up and being present to reality; which means one can be happy, loving, and real right now.
The few talks which he allowed to be filmed, such as "A Rediscovery of Life" and "A Way to God for Today," have inspired many viewers and audiences since being released; and have been viewed by hundreds of thousands of tv watchers throughout the United States, Canada, and Central America; in colleges, universities, Newman centers, and communities. De Mello established a prayer center in India. He died suddenly in His works are readily available and additional writings were published after his death. In , some of his opinions were condemned by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.
With the present Notification, in order to protect the good of the Christian faithful, this Congregation declares that the above-mentioned positions are incompatible with the Catholic faith and can cause grave harm.