Les Fils de la nuit. De brigades en brigades. Alain Pecunia, Les Ombres ardentes: Quand le Coq rouge chantera. Aux origines du Premier Mai Aux origines du 1er mai: France - Bourgeois et "bras nus", France. La Commune de Marseille: La Commune de Toulouse Toulouse le 25 mars France Instituteurs pacifistes et syndicalistes: Les propositions des communistes libertaires" UTCL. La Commune hongroise et les anarchistes. La Commune de Budapest.
Luiggi Fabbri, le mouvement anarchiste italien et la lutte contre le fascisme. Ixelles 7 avril s. Pa Kin, le coq qui chantait dans la nuit. Au fait, au fait! Que la raison collective traditionnelle est une fiction Chapitre III: Que le dogme individualiste est le seul dogme fraternel Chapitre IV: Le Grand secret de Germaine Berton: Travailleur ne soit pas soldat!
Lettre au ministre des Beaux-arts. Gustave Courbet et la Commune, le politique. Durruti dans le labyrinthe. La Vie et la propagande: La situation anarchiste actuelle: Ce que tout le monde devrait savoir Jean-Didier Giraud.
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Bibliographie de Pierre Kropotkine: Drysdale [Charles Vickery, ]. Y a-t-il des subsistances pour tous? Pierre Kropotkine et "le Manifeste des Seize". Les travailleurs de la culture en lutte: A Paris et Vascoeuil: Ne pleurez pas ma mort. Les Aventures de B. Nationale et internationale Presse actuelle. Roubaix , puis Paris Langue basque Ekintza Zuzena Presse anarchiste.
Une organisation politique libertaire est-elle possible? Qui sont les anarchistes? Internationale situationniste Collectif, Bourseiller Christophe. Organisation Communiste Libertaire O. Quel usage du droit face aux luttes sociales? Pourquoi Vallotton est-il un peintre important? Les questions Art et anarchie: Georges Moustaki "Les Anarchistes". La Chanson anarchiste Ouvrages et articles de G. La Parole en chantant. Han Ryner Henri Ner: Correspondingly, the fictional encyclopaedia, as i t rewrites the sacred scriptures and reenacts sacred r i t u a l , is particularly concerned with the Creation, the Fall and the possibility of an often erotic Redemption.
The epic's hesitation between telling history and making beautiful fictions is very much a trait of the fictional encyclopaedia. A work such as Dante's Commedia which, in the sense that i t includes topical issues, is more encyclopaedic than epic is concerned with history but is not content merely to report i t. It must place events within a larger fictional structure, place historical figure next to angel, place Italy next to the cosmos and God's scheme of things. In this sense i t imitates the encyclopaedia i t s e l f which, while professing to be working objectively with the real, shapes and takes liberties with knowledge in a manner reminiscent of f i c t i o n.
The epic hero finds his double or his extension in the fict i o n a l encyclopaedia. We recall that in the epic scheme of things, in an order bounded by the wi l l of the gods or by God's foreknowledge , the hero is ultimately limited in his capabilities and recognizes his own mortality. This is the case even though the hero is larger in stature than any other figure. Now, the epic hero takes two different forms in the fictional encyclopaedia, depending on whether the work Is ironic or not.
In both cases the hero's nature is bound up in the pursuit of knowledge—a pursuit which was not foregrounded in the. In works such as Ulysses and Finnegans Wake, the epic hero faces his ironic double. Bloom and HCE are based on - 32 -the larger-than-life heroes, Ulysses and Adam; they move through the respective works in a grandiose manner, having adventures and mishaps; their actions are commented upon from the perspective of myth and history. And yet both figures are voyeurs and tricksters.
Both are magnified in order to be deflated: What would be known in these works, a set of truths at once erotic, nostalgic and mystical, is balanced by this ironic perspective and hence is rendered somewhat ambiguous. In less ironic works such as Faust and Moby-Dick, the epic hero faces his extension into an untenably extreme form. Faust, obviously caught up in the pursuit of knowledge, overshoots the epic mark, transgresses the boundaries traditionally limiting the epic hero's capacities.
Faust would go beyond God's order and accede directly to the truth of things. Faust, like HCE, wants to know too much, but his Fall is not ironized; he loses far more than his reputation. Like Aeneas, Faust towers over his contemporaries; unlike the prudent epic hero, however, he does not ultimately submit his w i l l to a divine one. Similarly, Ahab in Moby-Dick is modelled on the epic voyager after knowledge; however, in his desire to see into the heart of evil in the form of the white whale, he transgresses like Faust the boundaries of cosmic order and ultimately f a l l s from grace.
Thus the fict i o n a l encyclopaedia repeats and transforms the epic hero differently depending on whether i t is a modern ironic work or not. Oral epic is more or less anonymous: In the epic, as in the Menippean satire and the essay, anonymous composition the text as a wide assimilation of cultural categories is in tension with authored composition the text as a personal project. This tension within the epic genre is precisely the distinction between primary and secondary epic.
Now, the fictional encyclopaedia often gives the impression of having anonymous authorship.
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A multitude of categories of knowledge are drawn into i t and enter into play; cliches, proverbs, direct transcriptions of signs, snatches of songs, weave through the text. A culture or community, not a particular person, seems to be authoring the work. So much information is included that one person, i t seems, could not possibly have transmitted i t. This effect is particularly marked, for Instance, in Finnegans Wake: Like oral epic, then, the fictional encyclopaedia has an anonymous aspect; however, like written epic and, of course, like a l l written works , the genre remains an authored one.
Indeed, i t goes further in being quite conscious of its nature and limitations as writing. Images of writing, of the book, in examples of the form are an important indication of this l i t e r a r y , or even scriptural, self-consciousness. Finnegans Wake, for example, while often giving - 34 -the impression of being a compendium of popular, orally-transmitted knowledge, a chorus or, better, cacophony of voices from different cultures and times, nonetheless features specifically literary images: Anna Livia's letter and the exegete's activity in deciphering i t transmit a consciousness of the literary epistolary nature of the 43 enterprise of the book; further, the parody of literary conventions of marginal commentary and footnoting indicates a textual tradition to which the book, however much i t may aspire to a condition of o r a l i t y , necessarily belongs.
Thus we cannot simply say that our genre takes over the oral qualities of epic; i t absorbs, rather, the conflict between oral song and written book that stands at the heart of the epic as genre. Introduction and general discussion We have seen an encyclopaedic mode to be operating, to varying degrees, in several historical genres, and to be determining our perception of their "encyclopaedic" nature.
These genres are the essay, the Menippean satire, and the epic. It is clear, however, that there exist certain texts that transcend these generic boundaries or include them a l l. Such texts contain aspects of the more limited genres, and yet seem to form a group on their own—the genre that we have - 35 -tentatively called "the ficti o n a l encyclopaedia. Our task wil l now be to establish the traits of the latter as i t provides a model for the fictional encyclopaedia. In doing so, we must realize that the encyclopaedia Is only a metaphor for its fictional counterpart; we must not posit direct relations between the two levels.
Characteristics of the non-fictional work are not taken over directly by fictional texts such as Moby-Dick and Finnegans Wake: In discussing the encyclopaedia, we shall be concerned with a number of different questions, a l l useful in f i l l i n g in more completely, later, the traits of the fictional encyclopaedia. We w i l l look at the etymology of the term i t s e l f ; at other, related forms or metaphors for the encyclopaedia, such as the thesaurus, etc.
These questions suggest more general ones focusing on the ambivalent relation of the encyclopaedic project to i t s own limitations: Thus a number of assumptions as to - 36 -possibilities for knowledge underlie the encyclopaedic undertaking— underlie i t and at the same time are put into question by i t. The term "encyclopaedia" derives from the Greek terra for "encyclical education": The notion of an encyclopaedia, then, before referring to a book charged with including within its covers this circle or circular body of learning, referred just as importantly to a body of ideas, a course of education or instruction, which could conceivably have been 46 held and practised in oral, as well as l i t e r a t e , cultures.
We must think about both a body of knowledge and a course of instruction or doctrine; the encyclopaedia, that i s , concerns both the object of knowledge and the process of coming to know. The term has more commonly come to refer to a book or set of books containing information on a l l aspects of knowledge, or on one particular branch of knowledge. The term has even come to be synonymous or almost so with the Encyclopedie of Diderot and d'Alerabert, such that many encyclopaedias neglect to include articles on their own form, its special problems and history, while nonetheless including an article on their famous predecessor.
It is important for a consideration of the fictional encyclopaedia, however, to avoid exclusive emphasis on the notion of the book, and to return to the roots of the term "encyclopaedia," emphasizing the notions of circularity comprehensiveness, totalization of knowledge and of education "paideia" means "culture".
Besides being Books containing, and somehow replacing, the world, encyclopaedias and, indirectly, their - 37 -fic t i o n a l counterparts are engaged in the process of education, formation, acculturation. What is important is not simply the knowledge included in i t s e l f , but also the act of building up this body or circle of "connaissances" and communicating i t to the public.
The notion of "paideia" is thus important to keep in mind; i t has the same root as "paideuma," that notion which Pound places at the base of his vision in the later Cantos, and which comes to mean, for him, that body of ideas, rooted in a culture, that forms the basis of its ways of ordering experience. A notion of knowledge as arcane possession, store or treasure is definitely not lacking in the encyclopaedic endeavour; this hoarding for purposes of power is nonetheless balanced, or undermined, by the above drive toward a clear distribution of ideas.
Magical or conservative and populist or distributive tendencies both compete in the encyclopaedic impulse. It is illuminating to look at names, often metaphorical, that encyclopaedias may take or have taken in different cultures; these tend to reflect the opposing impulses, magical and social, noted above. There is the term "reference work," which assumes the communication of ideas, grounding this process in the material support of the book, a 4 9 social product. Other cultures have played with terms such as "book - 38 -of categories" Chinese and "tree of knowledge" India.
Other terms include a "key to knowledge" Islam and a "necklace" Islam , a circle of treasures. The "c i r c l e " in the term "encyclopaedia" joins the above metaphors; one must also include a notion of a "thirst" or desire for knowledge, a notion engendering such aquatic metaphors as a "fountain of words," an "ocean of jade," an 54 "ocean of words" a l l Chinese.
Tree, book, key, necklace, treasure, c i r c l e , mirror, ocean: The relation is one of desire—or, in the metaphor, "thirst"—with the qualification that such thirst is self-engendering and endless. This is the "magical" drive for arcane knowledge and power, a drive that conflicts with the encyclopaedia's communicative function. There are two general ways in which the encyclopaedia can arrange i t s material.
These are the alphabetic and the systematic orders. Both orders work under a common assumption: Within this totalizing framework, the two orders are quite dis t i n c t , and presuppose different world-views and historical conditions. Systematic arrangement used, for example, in the Encyclopedie de l a Pleiade is that in which the areas of knowledge are - 39 -presented according to their "natural" logic, divided up into chapters and sub-chapters; each area is intended to be read in it s entirety.
There is a strong sense of a whole behind the parts: The alphabetic order used, for example, in the Britannica i s , on the other hand, allied with empirical theories of knowledge; this is why i t has come to the fore only relatively recently. Unlike the systematic order, i t does not presuppose closed or previously-given systems of knowledge.
Each object of knowledge is to be attended to separately, and is important in it s own right; one can thus "look up" such an object to the exclusion of a l l others. In alphabetic ordering, one finds the most bizarre, non-systematic juxtapositions of objects or entries. The two encyclopaedic formats thus presuppose different conceptions of the nature of knowledge, although both assume, i t would seem, the possibility of attaining to i t to some degree.
The systematic arrangement, in progressing confidently through categories of knowledge, structures assumed to be given as such, obviously does not question the possibility of knowledge i t s e l f. The alphabetic format does not question the possibility of knowledge either: There might seem to be other possible arrangements of knowledge, such as the tree of memory-reason-imagination placed at the head of the Encyclopedic of Diderot; these do not dislodge the two major orders from their primacy. The Encyclopedie s t i l l follows the alphabetic order. Whatever the principle of order used, a body of knowledge is assumed to exist, which requires such ordering for i t s communication.
No one s ft format is inherently superior to the others. There are two kinds of authorship possible in an encyclopaedia: These may ally themselves with the two principles of order, discussed above—over history, at least, i f not at the present time. A single author may write an encyclopaedia when the available body of knowledge is compact enough to be digested, ordered and transmitted by one scholar. A single encyclopaedist, that i s , is more common in times, such as the Middle Ages, when the body of available knowledge is limited and submitted to an overriding usually theological order.
This type of authorship is also possible in encyclopaedias dealing with only one, narrow segment of the total ci r c l e of arts and sciences. Knowledge capable of being gathered and ordered by one author is also more lik e l y to be conceived of as a whole; that i s , i t is more likely to be set out in a systematic fashion, i t s areas being arranged from their general traits to their particulars, from one limit to the other. We should caution, however, that this correlation - 41 -between single authorship and systematic arrangement does not always hold, especially at the present time the Encyclopedic de la Pleiade is a case in point.
Joint or communal authorship becomes more common as the knowledge available grows too much and too quickly to be assimilated and transmitted by a single author. This type of authorship is thus especially prevalent in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. As the amount of information grows, so does the number of specialists required to order and present i t.
With each edition of an encyclopaedia such as the Britannica, more experts must be invited to contribute. To follow this trend to its logical conclusion would be to project an edition requiring thousands of volumes and countless contributors. Now, the greater the number of specialists involved in the work of the encyclopaedia, the more it s authorship becomes essentially anonymous. In modern alphabetic encyclopaedias, authors are listed at the beginning of each volume, but are only indicated by i n i t i a l s at the end of the articles for which they are responsible.
The work is not, s t r i c t l y speaking, anonymous, but i t is nearly so: Such essentially anonymous and expanding knowledge is l i k e l y to be alphabetically arranged: In a similar way, encyclopaedic orders may be systematic or alphabetic, according to whether the body of knowledge is conceived as being unified, circular and relatively stable, or in f i n i t e l y divided, expanding and unstable.
The encyclopaedia, then, is the result of a basic impulse to know a l l there is to know. One arranges such knowledge according to modes of order reflecting, to some extent, both a historical moment and an encyclopaedic tradition. Encyclopaedias, i t has been argued, flourish especially in times of transition between one social order and another, seeking to comprehend a l l past knowledge to the end of understanding a 59 sensed new order of things.
A tradition is recovered, stabilized, and included in an uncertain present; the enterprise may be "to make a man whole. Problems ln the totalization of knowledge That the encyclopaedic enterprise is characterized by a drive to encircle or include a l l there is to know, for ends that vary h i s t o r i c a l l y , does not preclude the possibility that there are - 43 -limitations to this drive.
Such limitations are, I would argue, built in to the enterprise i t s e l f. No matter how confident an undertaking i t may be, no matter how much faith the encyclopaedists may have in the possibility of mastering and communicating the body of knowledge at hand, the totality of this body is an elusive thing. One can thus speak of an erotics of knowledge, a recognition of loss at the very heart of its quest. Equivocation or a simultaneous attraction to opposites characterizes, f i r s t of a l l , the encyclopaedia's relation to a totalization of knowledge. It is both confident of achieving such comprehensiveness—this according to its very definition as being the circle or complete figure of knowledge, of the arts and sciences—and susceptible to the awareness that i t has not achieved i t , i f not to the awareness that total comprehensiveness can never be attained.
The modern encyclopaedia's continuing sense of its own incompleteness is implied in i t s practice of publishing new editions involving new or revised articles; i t is suggested in its continuing enterprise to keep 6 1 up with, comprehend and transmit, an ever-expanding body of knowledge. Older encyclopaedias may seem by hindsight to have been markedly incomplete. Indeed, i t has been claimed that a mania for totalization was not even characteristic of encyclopaedia-making before the nineteenth century: There seem, then, to be two attitudes towards totalization: The f i r s t attitude may also involve the realization that totalization is desirable but only possible when pursued by more than one encyclopaedist: The desire to achieve encyclopaedic closure involves the desire to write the one Book that w i l l render a l l other books obsolete and unnecessary.
As Mallarme discovered, this hope remains a hope only: In some shelf of some hexagon. Vestiges of the worship of that remote functionary s t i l l persist. To me, i t does not seem unlikely that on some shelf of the universe there lies a total book. I pray the unknown gods that some man—even i f only one man, and though i t have been thousands of years ago! Let me be outraged and annihilated, but may Thy enormous Library be j u s t i f i e d , for one instant, in one being.
The search for completeness in the mastery of knowledge is evident in the very appearance of new encyclopaedias an occurrence that - 45 -is frequent, especially in this century as the body of knowledge to be transmitted expands almost exponentially.
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If a single encyclopaedia could really do what i t desired to do—that i s , resume a l l knowledge and a l l books for a l l time within its covers—then new attempts to master the body, or deal with its parts, would be rendered unnecessary. Evidence, then, of a quest for completion is also, paradoxically, evidence of the failure of this quest. Similarly, the publication of new editions and often the discarding of earlier ones and the publication of supplements and yearbooks66 attest to a double movement, in the encyclopaedia, of the mastery of knowledge and the acknowledgement of i t s loss.
The phenomenon of the suppression and disappearance of older encyclopaedic editions is suggested in Borges' story "Tlon, Uqbar, Orbis 67 Tertius," and is made the vehicle of a characteristic air of metaphysical mystery. Until i t is finally located, and even upon i t s perusal, a missing volume of an older edition carries a body of truth, a key to a mystery.
This volume in turn points to the existence of a whole set of volumes only one of which surfaces encompassing the knowledge of an imaginary culture. The optimistic process of discarding the old in the quest for ever-new editions, and hence for ever-more-complete knowledge, is here undermined: An optimistic view of knowledge, one which sees knowledge as capable of being mastered and distributed, encounters—in Borges' encyclopaedia—a pessimistic or conservative tendency, in which knowledge is seen as something mystical - 46 -or arcane, reserved for a selected few and threatened by extinction upon their deaths.
Thus the loss or destruction of older editions suggests a movement whereby completion of knowledge is undermined; the unity of the present edition is shadowed by the notion that i t is perhaps not more, but less, complete than an earlier edition, that i t is omitting something v i t a l that may only be found in i t s predecessor.
The publication of supplements suggests a similar knot in the totalizing process. Whereas the existence of back editions initiates a search backward in time for articles that may have been suppressed, for pieces to f i l l in gaps in the circ l e of knowledge, the publication of supplements initiates a forward temporal movement whereby gaps in the encyclopaedia must be f i l l e d by articles or work published after the present edition.
In both cases, holes are evident in the work, holes which must be f i l l e d as part of the general drive to completeness motivating the encyclopaedic enterprise. There are always more articles that could be written, as the objects and fields of knowledge grow in number, or as systems of classification or principles of order change.
Encyclopaedic completeness is thus a vir t u a l i t y only. It is kind of C Q "leurre" or "will-o'-the-wisp that cannot be pinned down in any one edition; It escapes i t s bounds and must be caught in a supplement—or in another edition. As a kind of alphabet, the encyclopaedia must always project more letters beyond Z: Such a desire may either be manifested as a nostalgia, a turning back to lost works or editions in which the missing fragments of the puzzle might be found, or as a looking-forward to a Book to resume—and e n d — a l l books.
It seems then that notions both of the F a l l and of the Apocalypse must inform any thinking about encyclopaedias. Why are these images of beginnings and endings so important? The sacred scriptures, s t r i c t l y speaking, do not form an encyclopaedia in themselves: Nonetheless, the Old and New Testaments, in being bounded by the Creation and the Apocalypse, possess a circularity or completion, the nostalgia for which motivates the encyclopaedic project.
It is thus the Bible's interpretation as being the Book containing a l l there i s , that is important here. Problems of time A desire to achieve completeness is bound up, in the encyclopaedia, with a desire to achieve a state of timelessness for the knowledge contained therein. If a circle could be drawn around a l l knowledge, catching i t between the covers of a single Book which may - 48 -include many volumes , then, as a figure of perfection, this circle would exist above the domain of temporal flux, and knowledge would be immune to the pressure of history and the real.
Diderot, in the Prospectus of the Encyclopedic, expresses such a desire, but in rather equivocal terms: The Encyclopedic is a closed sanctuary for knowledge, maintaining i t outside the mainstream of history and violent change; i t i s , at the same time, open to change and to the contributions of posterity. To this encyclopaedist, the circle of knowledge can be perfected, but only in an indefinite future time. Perfection can thus be made one's goal, while being at the same time deferred as one struggles, in the present, with the temporal limitations of the undertaking.
These limitations are, again, those of totalization: The longer the encyclopaedic work takes, the more problematic i t becomes: Perfection or completion, that i s , accompanies simultaneity, a l i f t i n g out of time. Contemporaneity could also, in the Encyclopedists' aim at least, go with such simultaneity: The testimony of one encyclopaedist—Diderot—underlines the paradox wherein one can be aware, In practice, of the d i f f i c u l t i e s for production posed by the passage of time, and yet believe that ultimately knowledge and understanding have no temporal horizon, that knowledge can be shared by a l l times in a common encyclopaedic endeavour—the making of a single great Book of the world.
Relation to other books The wishful notion that knowledge has no temporal limits suggests the converse notion that i t is indeed time-bound, and this because i t is text-bound. Time enters the picture, that i s , because the encyclopaedia works with the tradition in the form of texts. The circle of instruction is a circle of ideas that are only accessible via the reception of texts.
In oral cultures, the circle would draw upon a tradition of oral "texts," or bodies of ideas transmitted from - 50 -generation to generation. The tradition is no less structured for being 75 unwritten. In matters of knowledge, this conflict between immediacy and textuality, between "experience" and "books" is dramatized by Goethe's Faust, who would go straight to the heart of nature the s p i r i t world and who scorns the scholar Wagner's bookish method of acquiring knowledge: How strange, that he who cleaves to shallow things Can keep his hopes alive on empty terms And dig with greed for precious plunderings, And find his happiness unearthing worms!
How dared this voice to raise its human bleat 7 g Where waits the sp i r i t world in immanent power? The tension is between the lowest of the low—worms—and the heights of s p i r i t. But, of course, as Faust progresses the opposition must be inverted, as the " s p i r i t " to whom the seeker of knowledge aspires turns out to be the Serpent i t s e l f. Faust's soaring flight is actually his f a l l.
His aspirations, aside from being sacrilegious, are impossible: Wagner's aspirations, though more plodding, are closer to the nature of available knowledge. There is thus a third paradox associated with the making of encyclopaedias. The ideal to which one aspires, along with the ideals of totalization and tiraelessness, is knowledge in an unmediated state; the problem with which one lives is that an encyclopaedia relies on a whole fabric of other books, sources, and hence that its material is multiply mediated and second-hand.
Other books form the basis for the - 51 -individual a r t i c l e s , which may or may not acknowledge them via references or citations. These others making up the encyclopaedic "intertext" may be the anonymous texts, or fragments of texts, or proverbs, etc. At this point we should digress briefly into a discussion of intertextuality, in i t s general features and in its bearing on the nature of the encyclopaedia and of encyclopaedic knowledge.
Intertextual functioning characterizes not just encyclopaedias but a l l texts, to the extent of being a major constituent of textuality i t s e l f. Each text functions both horizontally taking i t s place in a communicative circuit and vertically taking up a relation to a corpus of other texts. The vertical dimension is an intertextual'one: A la place de la notion d'intersubjectlvite s'lnstalle celle d'intertextualite, et le langage 77 poetique se l i t.
The intertextual space is "un espace. The old dichotomy between word and thing, book and world, is f i n a l l y dissolved. The idea of the Book results from an emphasis on the vertical dimension of textuality at the expense of i t s horizontal, or communicative, dimension. Earlier semiotic accounts of intertextuality are responsible for this emphasis on an autonomous poetic functioning.
I would argue that communication—the production and reception of texts—must be what ultimately directs such functioning, which is not, in the last word, autonomous. A "horizontal" theory of intertextuality would emphasize the role of the reader in reconstituting the intertext behind a text—and, indeed, in perceiving the need for such a reconstitution. Riffaterre's theory of intertextuality, for example, differs from earlier semiotic accounts on just this direction of emphasis.
A close text-reader interaction is posited: The reader must construct a significance—or reconstruct an intertext or subtext—which is in no way arbitrary, but i s , rather, tightly determined textually. Readers' capacities to uncover the intertext may vary individually and over time; nonetheless, intertextuality w i l l remain functional because i t involves the perception of irre g u l a r i t i e s , - 53 -even without the possibility of sketching in their source. It is the nostalgia of a reader for lost significance that sets the reconstitution of this body into motion.
From a "horizontal" point of view, then, intertextuality is a hermeneutic function which ultimately rests in a communication of desire to understand, to make significance. This function must orient a vertical relation to a space of discourse, other texts. We should keep these notions in mind as we consider the question of intertextuality in non-fictional t e x t s — s p e c i f i c a l l y , in the c r i t i c a l article and in the encyclopaedia a r t i c l e. Intertextuality in criticism is explicit or declared according to the conventions governing the practice of this genre.
The writer must indicate the text or texts with which he is engaging in dialogue or argument; s he must acknowledge any other sources in footnotes or internal references. The c r i t i c a l text submits i t s e l f to the authority of its model or parent text; this holds even i f the younger text takes issue with i t s authority or wishes to exceed i t.
The relation is one of inequality. Encyclopaedias, on the contrary, are not constrained to submit to a law of explicit acknowledgement of sources and submission to their authority. They claim for themselves the ideal and the privilege of dealing with knowledge as such, and not engaging i n a dialogue with other texts. But, as we have seen, the encyclopaedia cannot actually attain to knowledge without the mediation of other texts. The article in the - 54 -encyclopaedia does, in fact, relate to these texts as much as the c r i t i c a l article does; the process of submission to authority is the same, even though such submission may be unconscious or unacknowledged.
Some articles contain references to sources on which they have relied for their material, and may have bibliographies. This is especially the case in longer articles with subsections, such as those on the geography, history, etc. Other a r t i c l e s , often very short and dealing with a simple unit of knowledge, contain no references whatsoever. The point to emphasize here is that a convention of acknowledgement, that would govern the writing of encyclopaedias, i s lacking. In this sense, the encyclopaedia article exists somewhere between the work of criticism and the work of f i c t i o n , the latter's reference to other texts being even more tacit than the encyclopaedia's.
The encyclopaedia a r t i c l e , in other words, has already been moved one step toward f i c t i o n a l i t y , toward a free or unacknowledged play with other texts. Thinking about intertextuality, then, leads one to a notion of texts as being "second-hand". The knowledge to be gained from texts i s thus also never innocent, never unmediated, never "natural. In order for language to bear some relation to nature, the latter must be seen as i t s e l f being a kind of writing or - 55 -book—nature i t s e l f must be made non-simple—and so the knowledge one can have of i t through the book must be even more multiply mediated and problematic.
As Sollers says of Mallarme's notion of writing as "totale arabesque," "c'est. We can draw several conclusions from the above ideas on intertextuality. There is a tension, in the encyclopaedia, between non-fiction's especially criticism's urge to cite i t s sources, and fiction's tendency to dissimulate i t s sources, or at least to display a cavalier attitude toward them, now citing in a parodic fashion, as in Finnegans Wake , now neglecting to do so.
The encyclopaedia a r t i c l e , we saw, may cite or give further references, or i t may not do so. There appears to be no explicit convention guiding i t s relation of dependence on other books, and this is because in i t the ideal of an unmediated knowledge ultimately overrides any duty to signal such dependence.
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Thus the ambiguous status of the encyclopaedia article with respect to i t s sources reflects its paradoxical aspiration to a direct relation to knowledge, while nonetheless having recourse only to. Ideology and writing Mallarme's notion of writing as being a "totale arabesque", a notion of ar t i f i c e or divorce from nature not ordinarily associated with such writing, brings in a fourth paradox in the encyclopaedic enterprise.
This concerns the encyclopaedia's—and more generally the book's—relation to the world. There is a tension between the book's aspiration to mirror the world, to stand in a direct, again unmediated relation to i t , and it s status as an ideological and written construct. This tension i s , one might say, between two notions of the mirror: Borges, in his story "Tlon, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius," opens with the following line: Mirrors in Borges' story are somehow associated with encyclopaedias in that they suggest mysteries and illusions: Both encyclopaedia and mirror, then, have an ambiguous relation to truth, even while the encyclopaedia maintains a strong nostalgic bent toward the metaphor of mirror as simple reflector.
The encyclopaedia, we have said, is ideological in nature: Such structures or 'codes': Any work aspiring to a disinterested mimesis of reality can be shown to be responding, whether consciously or not, to exigencies of time and place. It might at f i r s t seem that encyclopaedias should escape such dissembling of historical conditions and interests—that they should cla r i f y the premises underlying their selection and presentation of objects of knowledge.
This supposition springs from the myth of, and nostalgia for, objectivity at the heart of the encyclopaedic enterprise. And yet we see, for example, how Diderot, in his Prospectus to or apology for, or celebration of the Encyclopedie, creates an impression of new beginnings, of a rupture with past efforts, when i t is obvious that the work takes its place in a tradition and is but one more response to a continuing and probably universal drive to comprehend and order knowledge. The Encyclopedie, Diderot says, is to be a new repository of knowledge to be added to by a l l posterity; what a pity - 58 -that the Ancients did not make anything similar: Diderot ignores, here, an entire tradition of pre-medieval and medieval encyclopaedias; he also ignores the fact that Bacon's division of knowledge, inspiring the "systeme figure des connoissances humaines" which supposedly schematizes the ordering principles of the Encyclopedie, is actually indirectly a product of this "forgotten" 8 8 tradition.
Diderot's "vision partielle et partiale" of the tradition 8 9 thus indicates a certain "parti pris 'philosophique'". Why this blind spot in an "enlightened" encyclopaedist? The encyclopaedia aspires to deal with knowledge in i t s e l f , "objectively"; i t aspires to be a mirror of the world without the intervention of interests, dissimulations. But knowledge is intimately connected with concerns of power: The history which bears and determines us has the form of a war rather than that of a language: Comme le rappelle encore Thierry Destrez op.
La conclusion est votre temps fort: Votre texte ne comportera pas moins de 3 pages. Et puis les femmes ont fait.
Et je repose ma question: Dans trente-six heures, il sera ici, et moi… Je prends ce soir le rapide de Paris-Karlsbad, qui nous conduisit jadis vers Bayreuth. Toby le chien, et Toby le revolver. Mais elle devra en payer le prix: Annie semble faire partie de nos connaissances: Le vocabulaire est explicite: Plus question de voyage en amoureux vers Bayreuth: Annie est la doublure fictive de Colette.
Colette chez elle, au Palais Royal Paris. Vous traiterez ensuite un des trois sujets suivants au choix 16 points: Devenu libre, il est devenu injuste envers sa compagne. Dieu et les hommes seraient ici en cause. Dans trente-six heures, il sera ici, et moi… Je prends ce soir le rapide de Paris-Carlsbad, qui nous conduisit jadis vers Bayreuth.
Inventer une parole de femme. Qui parle au Capitole? Qui parle au temple? Les hommes ont la parole. Inventer une parole qui ne soit pas oppressive. Support de cours BTS. Tout semble pourtant comme avant: Lydie Pearl Corps, sexe et art: Corps sujet, corps objet. Devenu signe, illusion cf.
En quoi le corps humain est-il un instrument de contestation? Grotte de Lascaux Montignac, Dordogne. It discusses constructions of the human body in time and our writing of prehistory as a political act. Document 1 Louise Bourgeois , sans titre: Document 2 Babette Rothschild , Le Corps se souvient: Il ne faut pas en parler. Rappel de la consigne: Attribution Non-Commercial No Derivatives.
En premier lieu, la pratique des langues. Mais quelle somme de philosophie y trouve-t-on en se jouant! Je veux que tu apprennes les langues parfaitement. Que rien ne te soit inconnu. Des premiers automates doc. It complements the traditional biological sciences concerned with the analysis of living organisms by attempting to synthesize life-like behaviors within computers and other artificial media. Chaque bout de doigt est garni de peau, pour imiter la mollesse du doigt naturel, afin de pouvoir boucher le trou exactement.
Et comme lord Ewald continuait de le regarder en silence: La mienne en a tressailli, sur ma parole! La chair se fane et vieillit: Tout, enfin, dans ces abominables masques, horripile et fait honte.
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Ils en posent aussi en neurobiologie. Le but ultime de ces machines est de pouvoir nous assister. Autre question, celui du cerveau social, celui des neurones miroirs. Pour aller plus loin…. Flammarion, Paris , page Mais aussi toutes nos passions. Michel Foucault, op.