Response of wetland plant species to hydrologic conditions. Wetland Ecology and Management Tracking changes with urbanization: Variation in the distribution and abuundance of seagrass Zostera marina L. Assessing the ecological condition of wetlands at the catchment scale. Perspectives on setting success criteria for wetland restoration. Characterization of wetland hydrology using hydrogeomorphic classification. A comparison of approaches to prioritizing sites for riparian restoration. Restoration Ecology 5 4S: Island Press, Washington, DC, Wetland Creation and Restoration: The Status of the Science.
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Coupled with the long-term impact of a planned economy, it is difficult for grassroots governments to adapt to such a huge change in rural communities, lacking the work experience in rural communities under a market economy. Another constraint is that the capacity of some rural cadres is questionable; they usually do not have the time or the patience for field investigation and study.
Protected area staff members are generally committed to their work, often involving some self-sacrifice. But they have their own families, clans, and other social networks. They also have personal plans for family development, so their behaviours are promoted and restricted by the social networks. All these factors influence their views on wetland management to various degrees. These views objectively reflect the interest of individual members, families, clans and other social networks of protected area staff members, as well as their knowledge and life experience.
In real life, to promote community co-management work, it is necessary to empower the authority of the community in managing its natural resources. Even if the leadership of protected areas recognizes this trend, the average employees do not necessarily agree. The loss of power means loss of face, and loss of access to benefit.
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It also goes against their need to protect their own social networks. There are various contradictions and conflicts between farmers and other farmers, farmers and the community committee and Party branch, villages and other villages, villages and grassroots governments, and villages and protected areas. These are the biggest problems facing Chinese farmers in developing their communities. Villagers view people from outside with wariness and hostility. We introduced a concept of an entry project to cope with the above situation.
Usually long processes are involved to reach project approval, from project identification, proposal formulation, application and approval by many levels of authorities, fund transfer processing, which usually requires one more year, in particular for the first project for the Beizifu community. These usually create additional conflicts between the local government and the local community. Thus, during the first visit for developing integrated community development planning, we clearly stated that the first project proposed by the Beizifu community would be approved with only two conditions, agreed to by the majority of community, and less than 50, yuan in total budget.
This project would be considered as a gift to the community for developing trust between the project staff, the community and the local government. A community-based revolving fund was selected by the community as an entry project. Local officials and community heads are used to implementing projects through top-down processes.
China does not lack the idea of participatory processes and practices either in ancient or contemporary history Liu, Based on the experiences in the Beizifu community, change of individual behaviour and attitude is the most difficult part of promulgating community-based natural resource management practices.
Linking Science to International Wetland Policy – the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
Many local officials still doubt the capability of the local people Liu et al. In the past three years, the community has demonstrated its capacity to implement its project towards the sustainable use of natural resources.
Some officials have learned from this process and their attitudes and behaviours have gradually changed. However it is still one of the major barriers to project implementation. Although it is an important stage in the project cycle, very little knowledge has been gained on how to evaluate the intervention. However, we can summarize the achievements according to the opinions gathered from all the actors in the process. During the three-year intervention, the Beizifu community has been unified, the goat herds have been downsized to about two-thirds of former numbers, and the herders expected to increase their revenues while reducing pressure on the grassland.
The Association has not provided any project money for converting family herds to cashmere goats, but has successfully encouraged some families to do so using their own resources. This activity was set aside as only marginally suited to developing collective activity and a cooperative spirit within the community. They started to understand the potential for cooperative action on such essential issues as grassland management and livestock management. For example, they established a team to investigate the problem of over-grazing and pasture degradation, and saw the complexity of the problem as well as the great benefits that could be realized if they could reduce the number of intruders and external grazers on the lands of the community.
In short, the progress made in the community has testified to the possibility of harmonization of rural development and environmental protection or biodiversity conversation. Planned development interventions do not always achieve their expected direct outcomes. Reviewing the two decades of experience on planned interventions towards co-management schemes for biodiversity conservation, a rather mechanical model of the relationship between projects, implementation and outcomes has been mostly espoused. Intervention is made up of a complicated set of processes, which involve the reinterpretation or transformation of intervention action during the implementation process.
Therefore, there is no straight line from action to outcomes. In fact, outcomes may be the result of factors not directly linked to the particular implementation program. Implementation should, then, be viewed as a transaction process involving negotiation over goals and means between actors with conflicting or diverging interests, and not simply as the execution of a particular policy Warwick, The strategies they devise and the types of interaction that evolve between them and the various intervening parties shape the nature and outcomes of the interventions.
Since collectivization was introduced in rural areas, public services have disappeared.
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In production, villagers must face the market by themselves. They have been totally dominated in terms of agricultural production technology, agricultural supplies, and marketing. The role of the market is giving villagers increasing impact. Villagers have to rely on the market to make production decisions, and commercial rates of these agricultural productions are increasing.
Villagers also depend more and more on the market. Green revolution technology has also had a growing influence on the production behavior of villagers. It has led farmers to be more dependent on agencies which provide credit, seeds and fertilizers, and farmers have to sell their agricultural products to repay these debts. And these service agencies usually retain a high margin of profitability. Diesel supply serves as a good example of this as villagers need irrigation to achieve agricultural production, and the associated costs are an important part of overall production costs and fertilizer, one of which is that farmers buy fertilizer on credit from private agricultural enterprises before production.
Villagers can get loans from credit associations, but they need a mortgage to receive a loan, and even if there is a mortgage, they cannot get a loan when they are most in need of money. In recent years, the government has been enacting various policies, such as a prohibition on grazing, enclosures, etc. The Beizifu Community opened grasslands and planted mulberry trees under the leadership of the local government. While this policy was supported by the people, they were in fact supporting the opportunity to open up new farmland instead of planting mulberry trees, for there are prohibitions on creating new farmland on grassland areas.
When the plan for mulberry cultivation fails, switching to the cultivation of other crops will become a matter of course. The living space of the community is also being compressed. Community leaders are under increased pressure from higher authorities to improve management practices, but usually without the concrete support required to do so. To make things worse, the higher authorities and staff of protected areas have to take over some of the power of the community leadership, because their own utilization and distribution power is declining due to the policies and interventions introduced by governments at higher levels.
Another aspect is that, exposed to the rapidly changing outside world and the widening of employment opportunities and channels, communities are faced with more and more choices. The big contrast between the local communities and the outside world encourages increasing numbers of young people to leave their communities in order to seek new livelihoods and ways of life. This, to a certain extent, promotes the disintegration of communities. The disintegration of communities has generated many problems.
Everyone focuses on their own matters and there is a serious lack of community production and living services. Individual farmers face the market alone, and purchase their own agricultural resources. It is not possible to organize water facilities, and there is a lack of public cultural activities. It is also the key to rebuilding communities like Beizifu.
In , China estimated the difficulty and long-term characteristics of re-modelling communities. The village organized a reunion for women, which involved the voluntary participation of almost all the village women in the activities. The village cadres had not expected that so many would be willing to participate. During the implementation of the community project, the village cadres gradually established the role of village elite, and villagers demonstrated their enthusiasm for the village election.
The main participants of community project were chosen for the newly elected village leadership. Culture plays an inherently strong role in community development. The majority of community projects focus solely on activities that lead farmers to become wealthier, or facilitate the production and livelihoods of the people through the building of bridges, roads, gas supply, etc. In this project, we deliberately emphasized projects which can unite and mobilize communities, attempted to work with local natural resource management of wetlands, and combined these with local biodiversity conservation.
In Beizifu, we saw the potential influence of culture on development. Culture remodeling is a long-term dynamic process. In some protected areas, or Forestry Bureaus, a bureaucratic culture has been created, which consists of avoiding trouble whenever possible and bullying the weak and small.
This goes against the precepts that: There is a long and difficult path towards encouraging communities to love birds and respect nature, while resisting the bad behavior of a few internal and external individuals. China is faced with fierce conflicts between traditional and modern civilization, agricultural and nomadic lifestyles, and shifting modes of cultivation. We must realize that China is undergoing social change and may not return to a traditional form of civilization.
The social conflicts, environmental degradation, public confusion and social disorder brought by cultural fragmentation will become increasingly obvious. Each shift has always placed local communities on the losing side in terms of access to resources.
During its first 30 years, China was in a period of centralization and collectivization, followed by 30 years of decentralization and de-collectivization. Somewhat paradoxically, however, regardless of whether collectivization or de-collectivization prevailed, the outcome has always been the same: This at least part of the reason why China finally ended up undertaking massive and largely centralized interventions in terms of pasture protection, grazing prohibitions, and caged raising of cattle and sheep.
This suggests that the best policy for the restoration of natural resources would be through rebuilding the strong link between local people and their resources. There have been dramatic changes over the last 60 years in the interrelations between people, communities, and resources as reflected in changes within the macro-political, economic and social contexts, as well as changes at the micro level in terms of power relations, knowledge, and livelihood struggles.
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Frequent mutations in the macro and micro contexts have resulted in concomitant shifts in resource management and land use. Since , the local government has applied a policy of zero grazing to offset the trends in degradation of pasture resources. However, there is much more to the issue than that. Resource use and management is a critical arena for struggle and conflict between stakeholders Liu, Access to trees and their products galvanizes the interests of both outside groups — the government and authoritative non-government actors — and inside groups — community people.
The fundamental question we should ask is whether local knowledge systems, power structures, and cultures will be able to coexist and integrate in the face of external capital invasion and privatization Baumann, Environmental History, 3, 4: Participatory development in China: Plummer J and Taylor J.
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These community activities covered a wide range of elements for an environmentally-oriented integrated development approach: Based on this intervention, this paper documents the reflections on key points for identifying interventions and projects in the Beizifu community supporting community-based natural resource management. Finally, this paper reviews some critical issues for development interventions at the community level supporting sustainable natural resource management and biodiversity conservation, including development intervention, unification of community, culture - in particular traditional culture, and centralization and decentralization.
Jiang Hongxing , Associate Professor. Up to September , the following activities were conducted in the Beizifu community and by line agencies: Community-based revolving fund under the Association established in and expanded at the beginning of At the time the Association was established, the action generated much interest and support from the county and township government and various agencies at both governmental levels. Figure 2 Conceptual Framework for Community Participation in Wetland Resource Management Programmes The above-mentioned conceptual framework needs to be transformed into a practical operational framework.
Figure 4 Analysis of Community Development Project in Wetland Reservation Secondly, considering feasible technology, the available area will be more limited, as shown in Table 1 , which required us to conduct a more careful investigation and study, a more comprehensive analysis and multiple arguments. Table 1 Consideration of feasibility for development projects A B C D Feasible Technology The local government and local farmers accept, but the protected area authority does not accept, technically feasible Three parties accept — goal of wetland utilization project, technically feasible Government and protected area authority accept, technically feasible, but farmers do not support Protected area authority and local farmers accept, technically feasible, but local government does not support Unfeasible technology The local government and local farmers accept, but the protected area authority does not accept, technically unfeasibleThree parties accept, but technically unfeasibleThe government and protected area authority accept, local farmers do not support, technically unfeasibleProtected area authority and local farmers accept, but the government does not support, technically unfeasible Thirdly, the complicated social factors increase the complexity of project selection.
Forests in the mist. Wageningen University and Research. Google Map link to region. The local government and local farmers accept, but the protected area authority does not accept, technically feasible. Three parties accept — goal of wetland utilization project, technically feasible.