Karl Fischer titrations use electrolysis to determine the amount of water in a substance.
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Distillation separates a mixture of liquids based on their boiling point by heating, causing the more volatile component to vaporize and condense in a different container while the other components remain in the original vessel. In the laboratory, the vapors are usually cooled with a water-based Liebig condenser or Vigreux condenser , and the product is collected in a round-bottomed receiving flask. Azeotropes are mixtures that cannot be separated because at the specified pressure and composition, both components boil at the same temperature.
Calorimetry calculates the heat or enthalpy change of a chemical or physical process by using specialized vessels to measure a change in temperature. A very simple calorimeter can be made by placing a thermometer in an insulating polystyrene coffee cup and sealing it with a lid, causing the reaction inside to occur at constant pressure.
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Bomb calorimeters are very sturdy containers used to conduct combustion reactions at constant volume. Isothermal titration calorimetry ITC is a variant which can be used to determine the binding affinites and stoichiometry of proteins and enzymatic reactions. Chromatography separates a complex mixture into its individual components, commonly illustrated by the separation of pen ink into many colors. Chromatography involves two components: For example, in thin-layer chromatography , a mixture is spotted on one end of a plate of silica gel the stationary phase , then a solvent the mobile phase carries the components across the plate and separates them based on their polarity —polar substances will strongly interact with the polar silica gel and not move very far, while nonpolar substances will move very far.
In gas chromatography GC , substances are vaporized and run through a packed column, where the time it takes each component to travel through—the retention time —is determined.
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High-performance liquid chromatography HPLC is like gas chromatography, but the sample remains in the liquid phase and is pushed through using pressures of up to atmospheres. Ion-exchange chromatography uses stationary phases with acidic or basic functional groups to remove charged compounds; it can be used for water softening. Infrared spectroscopy IR acquires information about the chemical groups present in a compound based on which wavelengths of infrared light the bonds in those groups absorb. Samples are typically prepared by grinding them into a potassium bromide pellet or by creating a mull with the oil Nujol.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance NMR uses magnetic fields to determine the arrangement of nuclei in a molecule. Typical NMR methods only work on nuclei that have nonzero spin , such as 1 H and 13 C—the nonzero spin means that the nuclei oscillate between two spin states in a phenomenon called Larmor precession.
NMR measures the frequency at which each nucleus oscillates, whose deviation from a reference nucleus such as tetramethylsilane depends on the local electron density and is called the chemical shift. Matsuo Basho — , a pseudonym of Matsuo Munefusa: Generally acknowledged as the master of the haiku form, the most notable influences on his work were Zen Buddhism and his travels throughout Japan.
He is noted for works like The Narrow Road to the Deep North Oku no hosomichi , which includes descriptions of local sights in both prose and haiku. He took his pseudonym from the name of the simple hut where he retired: Originally named Sugimori Nobumori, Chikamatsu wrote more than plays for both the bunraku puppet theater and the kabuki popular theater. He is also largely responsible for developing the sewamono contemporary drama on contemporary themes in the joruri , a style of chanted narration adapted to bunraku. His mother died insane while he was a child, and his father was a failure who gave him up to relatives.
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Despite this inauspicious childhood, his short story Rashomon brought him into the highest literary circles and started him writing the macabre stories for which he is known. Rashomon also was key to his international fame, when Kurosawa Akira made it into a film in Recipient of the Nobel Prize for Literature , he was the first Japanese author to win the Nobel. Thousand Cranes , based on the tea ceremony and inspired by The Tale of Genji ; The Sound of the Mountain , about the relationship of an old man and his daughter-in-law; and Snow Country , about an aging geisha.
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A friend of Mishima Yukio , he was also associated with right-wing causes and openly protested the Cultural Revolution in China. He committed suicide two years after Mishima. Mishima Yukio — , a pseudonym of Hiraoka Kimitake: He was a novelist whose central theme was the disparity between traditional Japanese values and the spiritual emptiness of modern life.