Development from Within

Satisfaction of these basic needs facilitates people's autonomous motivation i. Satisfying these basic needs and acting autonomously have been consistently shown to be associated with psychological health and effective performance. Social contexts within which people operate, however proximal e.

Social contexts also affect whether people's life goals or aspirations tend to be more intrinsic or more extrinsic, and that in turn affects important life outcomes. Access to the complete content on Oxford Handbooks Online requires a subscription or purchase. Public users are able to search the site and view the abstracts and keywords for each book and chapter without a subscription. Please subscribe or login to access full text content. If you have purchased a print title that contains an access token, please see the token for information about how to register your code.

Certain activities were undertaken by the DPLG to strengthen the national capacity and provide support to provincial and local government in order to expedite service delivery at local level. Coordinated provincial briefing and consultation sessions on economic profiles for rural nodes were organised by the Department. Planning and implementation support were provided to a number of rural nodes during the Growth and Development Summits.

A partnership with the Business Trust resulted in the finalisation of economic profiles of 15 rural nodes. This improved government's understanding of the economic character of each node to some extent. With regard to the financial year in question, existing IGR structures in the nodes were reviewed, an IGR report was compiled, and a number of IGR structures were established in all the nodes. Furthermore, the DPLG was involved in the preparation for political champion and portfolio committee visits to certain nodes.

The provincial Departments of Social Development indicated financial support for the nodes. Partnerships were established in order to provide skills to learners; transport support was provided by the Department of Transport; and an integrated craft hub was developed in the Eastern Cape. It does not seem as if any of the activities that characterised this phase were in any way explicitly tied to or aligned by government with any of the international and regional developments in relation to development worldwide or in Africa as a whole or in the SADC.

The fact that these documents did not and still do not constitute enforceable rights within the domestic sphere may have been the reason for endeavours in South Africa that did not explicitly recognise international or regional soft law. A Critical Assessment of Implementation Activities. In terms of the Mid-term Review issued by the Presidency , a number of indicators were identified to measure progress made as regards areas that had been earmarked for focused development.

As indicated in the Mid-term Review , a number of these indicators are especially relevant in measuring the implementation and sustainability of rural development initiatives taking into account the significant levels of underdevelopment of the inhabitants of the deep rural areas of South Africa. Even though these assessments were more often than not of a quantitative as opposed to a qualitative nature, they do provide a partial overview of progress made with regard to development.

As a result of the extension of social grants and the creation of jobs, there was a decrease in the head count poverty rate. From to nearly 2. From to an additional 4. In the period , 3. Water infrastructure development projects increased rural communities' access to water. Also, in the period , malnutrition in children decreased, immunisation coverage increased, the maternal mortality ratio increased, and HIV and TB prevalence increased rapidly.

Various special instruments targeted poor communities: The findings as to the success and shortcomings of the ISRDS as evidenced by research undertaken in this matter are discussed below. According to a review by Jacobs et al , the overall impact of the ISRDS on rural development is difficult to estimate, as comprehensive and reliable indicators of its costs and benefits are not easily derived. From research undertaken in the ISRDS nodes, it is clear that that there is a lack of coordination among the stakeholders. A national stakeholder relations framework is non-existent.

In addition, private sector engagement is weak. This is a consequence, amongst other factors, of the fact that the ISRDS did not provide implementation guidelines, as rural development programmes do not normally have immediate positive outcomes for business, taking into account the geographical location of the rural nodes. As a result of poor timing, the first two years of the implementation of the Strategy were therefore spent on developing local capacity.

This and the poor coordination within government have continued to impact very negatively on the implementation of the ISRDS. Coordination among the three spheres of government as well as among sector departments has remained a significant challenge. Furthermore, governance structures have not paid sufficient attention to the pivotal role of the ISRDS. With regard to nodal selection, no reliable economic data existed for the first set of nodes. In addition, the response by the IDT as the agency responsible for programme implementation in dealing with the level of readiness of the stakeholders was deemed to be inadequate.

The view that the nodes most in need were the most deserving is not in all instances the most advantageous view. There was a definite failure of provincial and national government to understand and accommodate the municipal IDP process that is in ensuring an alignment between need and provision. Furthermore, the lack of available accurate data resulted in nodes being selected on the basis of social development and infrastructure, and not on account of economic potential.

This is seen by some as a fundamental flaw. A significant shortcoming was that many anchor projects bore no relation to the demands identified in the local IDPs, but rather reflected deliverables of sector departments. In addition, sector departments did not ensure that development was demand- and not supply-driven. Overall, there was a strong belief that municipalities did not have the skills required to implement the ISRDS and monitor the implementation of the projects. In addition, the research revealed a lack of coordination between the three spheres of government, as well as a lack of alignment with regard to the planning cycles of the three spheres.

The national sphere did not take the municipal IDPs into account when finalising its budget. Furthermore, the fact that capacity building initiatives were provided by different departments and agencies, but were not coordinated, resulted in a waste of money for all relevant parties. Junior government officials attended joint meetings, resulting in the postponement or shelving of issues, as these officials did not have the authority to take decisions. In addition, the roles of the parties involved in the execution of the ISRDS were not clearly defined.

Some key departments were not actively involved in all of the nodes. The Strategy was furthermore characterised by a lack of funding for the relevant programmes and projects.

Services on Demand

The report made it clear that there was a belief that the local sphere of government was best organised, followed by the provincial sphere. On a more positive note, the report indicated that there was a view amongst communities in the nodes that the ISRDS assisted the nodes in securing improved intergovernmental relations and co-operation among departments, as well as community participation even if this was insufficient.

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The Strategy was believed to provide opportunities for proper planning, access to basic resources, improved employment opportunities, improved skills levels amongst the poor, speedy service delivery, and visible local government intervention. The aim of the project was to improve understanding with regard to the nature of poverty; to identify key sustainable livelihoods interventions; to support the nodal, provincial and national spheres in developing a sustainable livelihoods approach and skills; to baseline the situation; and to evaluate the impacts of the programmes.

The report gave a brief overview of poverty levels, development, social capital, health status, and service delivery in each node. The questionnaire covered five main areas, namely poverty, development, social capital, health status and service delivery. Umkhanyakude and Bohlabela showed the worst performance. Although the ISRDS did not have a "programme-wide, positive impact, despite being halfway into their decade-long lifespan", the poverty index had dropped in all nodes.

In addition, the survey revealed that the decline in poverty levels had speeded up, and that poverty levels had dropped by 5. The decline was, however, not as great as in urban nodes due to the following reasons, amongst others: In addition, f local governance remained a challenge. It seemed that respondents found it more difficult to access social grants in certain nodes than in others. This highlights the need for better government communication.

This indicated that if the IDP formulation process had been better communicated and been more inclusive in the nodes, more people would have participated. When scrutinising the data, it became clear that node-specific intervention was needed, e. Lastly, the rural nodes performed better than the urban nodes with regard to social capital. In many instances the integration of youth was uneven and dependent on the goodwill of individual officials within the clusters. Mention has already been made of the non-enforceability at domestic level of a number of key international and regional documents which refer to or deal with aspects of development, rural development and sustainable development.

This does not preclude the fact that the South African government could have been influenced in its thinking by the content of the relevant international and regional instruments that address development and which the country committed itself to. However, the analysis of the South African rural development-related documents, as well as of the implementation of programmes and projects within this context indicates that the international documents have not played any explicit part in either conceptualisation or implementation.

Although the Constitution does contain a number of references to "development" as such and in various combinations such as "rural development" and "ecologically sustainable development", there is no evidence in government's practices after of a clear, coherent vision of development.

The limited implementation of Chapter 3 of the Constitution and the concomitant national intergovernmental framework legislation has resulted in uncoordinated policy formulation, planning, implementation and resource allocation as regards development-focused initiatives including, specifically, rural development initiatives. The Policy Shift. The above overview of some of the successes and failures of the consecutive rural development frameworks - and especially of the ISRDS - indicates clearly that the overall state of rural development remains poor, and that the aims and objectives of the proposed and real interventions have not been addressed in a manner which has brought about sustainable rural development and a significant improvement in the indicators of the quality of life.

The publication of the Development Indicators 66 issued by the Presidency showed that notwithstanding a number of discernable improvements, the core causes and attributes of rural underdevelopment still need to be addressed in order to stabilise rural communities and bring about enduring improvement in the quality of life and all related development aspects.

Edited by Richard M. Ryan

This evaluative overview identified 76 indicators, which are distributed in the following nine themes: During the June State of the Nation Address, the South African Government announced the introduction of a programme to build economic and social infrastructure. In addition, it was announced that a comprehensive rural development strategy linked to land and agrarian reform and food security would be developed and implemented. The Greater Giyani Local Municipality in Limpopo was chosen as the first of the pilot projects in the rural development campaign.

The framework programme document for the period, the Medium Term Strategic Framework 68 hereinafter MTSF , identifies five main objectives and ten key programmes for South Africa. The five main objectives are to halve poverty and unemployment by ; 69 to provide for a more equitable distribution of the benefits of economic growth and to reduce inequality; to improve the health and skills base, 70 as well as access to basic services; to improve the safety of citizens; and to build a nation free from racism, sexism, tribalism and xenophobia.

With regard to the third strategic priority rural development , mention is made of the establishment and implementation of an innovative approach to integrated rural development, namely the Comprehensive Rural Development Strategy which is linked to land and agrarian reform and food security. Between at least 10 and 15 million South Africans live in largely rural areas that are characterised by extreme poverty and underdevelopment.

The overall objective is to develop and implement a comprehensive strategy for rural development that transcends the dichotomy between rural and urban, and that will improve the quality of life of rural households, will enhance the country's food security through generating a broader base of agricultural production, and will exploit the varied economic potential that each area enjoys. The South African Government's Programme of Action is informed by the "People's Contract", and states that by government aims to have reduced poverty and unemployment by half; provided the skills required by the economy; ensured the realisation of the constitutional rights and full dignity of freedom for all South Africans; ensured the provision of compassionate government service to all people; achieved a better health profile and reduced the preventable causes of death; reduced crime; and positioned South Africa as an effective force in global relations.

The Government has also put in place a number of monitoring and evaluation systems that will assist in the assessment of government's meeting of its objectives, including the establishment of the Performance Management Monitoring and Evaluation Commission in the Presidency.

Over the next 5 years - the following priorities will receive attention: The CRDP has the following transversal programme elements: Each individual rural development project has to be aligned with the municipal local and district IDPs, PGDSs, area-based plans and other planning frameworks; has to comply with the participatory community-based planning approach; and has to be packaged and coordinated at the provincial level, in consultation with the local level.

In contrast with the three government periods before April , and , different ministers are now responsible for these two portfolios. The RDA will act as an arm of government and will be responsible for the following functions: Mention has been made above of the identification of Giyani in the Limpopo Province as the pilot site for the implementation of the CRDP. It is envisaged that additional pilots will be rolled out in a number of provinces during the next financial year It has been announced that the CRDP base document published in September will be updated before being implemented as the blueprint for Comprehensive Rural Development in South Africa.

A key part of the rural development strategy is the stimulation of agricultural production, which will in turn contribute to food security. This entails providing access to agricultural loans; providing agricultural implements to emerging farmers; and providing high quality agricultural extension services. With regard to emerging farmers, government will provide broadened access to training and skills enhancement; agricultural colleges will be transformed to become centres of excellence; the professional mentorship system for emerging farmers will be promoted; and steps will be taken to protect valuable agricultural land from encroachment by other land uses.

In addition, government will ensure access to basic food items for poor households. As indicated above, the international and regional documents pertaining to or having reference to development, rural development and sustainable development do not create binding rights within the domestic sphere. The CRDP does not refer explicitly to any of these documents as having established the context within which the CRDP has been formulated or is to be implemented.

No specific discussion is given in the CRDP framework of the relationship between rural development in South Africa and the international sustainable development agenda. The only references are to sustainable rural communities, sustainable livelihoods, sustainable resource management and use, sustainable use of natural resources, sustainable land use and management, sustainable rural development, sustainability of enterprises and, with respect to restitution, ensuring the sustainability of restitution projects.

If implemented, this will deal in a significant manner with some of the major deficiencies that characterised rural development policy frameworks, programmes and projects during the two preceding phases. The above overview and assessment of a the international development framework, b the key post constitutional, policy and implementation frameworks as regards sustainability, development and rural issues, and, c the three post phases relating to rural development provide the backdrop for the identification of the most crucial areas that need to be addressed by the South African Government.

It is recommended that in-depth multi-disciplinary research project be performed as regards the impact of government activities since and the reasons why there has not been a significant and sustainable improvement in the indicators relevant to the measurement of success in respect of rural development. The evaluation of the implementation of the ISRDS as the core national strategy for rural development prior to April indicates that a number of serious conceptual and implementation shortcomings have marred the significant impact that the ISRDS was intended to have.

The discussion of the post-April framework gives clear evidence of a radically new and different approach to sustainable rural development. As indicated above, the lessons learnt from the implementation of the ISRDS must be addressed by this new framework in order to bring about an enduring improvement in the quality of life and sustainable rural development. The success of this new approach depends on the effective coordination within and across the three spheres of government of the planning process e. MTSF, national departmental sectoral plans, provincial transversal and departmental specific plans, municipal IDPs and LEDs ; financial and other resources; human resources; the clarification of the roles of individual government and other public entities; implementation activities; monitoring and evaluation; as well as reporting and intervention.

The success of the approach also depends on the existence of an enforceable legal and administrative framework to provide for the above which would include, amongst other provisions, very specific binding intergovernmental arrangements , as well as on a well-coordinated fiscal framework for the implementation of this new approach.

Increased productivity and adherence to quality standards — Productivity usually increases when a company implements training courses. Increased efficiency in processes will ensure project success which in turn will improve the company turnover and potential market share. Increased innovation in new strategies and products — Ongoing training and upskilling of the workforce can encourage creativity. New ideas can be formed as a direct result of training and development. Reduced employee turnover — staff are more likely to feel valued if they are invested in and therefore, less likely to change employers.

Training and development is seen as an additional company benefit. Recruitment costs therefore go down due to staff retention.

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Enhances company reputation and profile — Having a strong and successful training strategy helps to develop your employer brand and make your company a prime consideration for graduates and mid-career changes. Training also makes a company more attractive to potential new recruits who seek to improve their skills and the opportunities associated with those new skills.

Training can be of any kind relevant to the work or responsibilities of the individual, and can be delivered by any appropriate method. For example, it could include: On-the-job learning Mentoring schemes In-house training Individual study Blended learning is becoming more and more popular and as a company we have seen a definite increase in this method of training over the last year. Blended Learning is the effective combination of online learning and classroom learning.