Translate the second half of Exercise 18 on pp. The whole chapter on Nouns and the whole chapter on Adjectives pp. I , except Exercise 6 at the end. Translate Exercises 2 p. I1 and 4 p. Translate Exercises 6 p. The whole chapter on Personal Pronouns pp. Translate Exercise 12 on pp. The whole chapter on Augmentatives, Diminutives, and Numerals pp. Translate Exercise 8 on p. The whole chapter on Conjunctions, Prepositions, and Adverbs pp. Translate Exercise 20 on p. The Italian alphabet has the same letters as the English, except that k, w, x, and y do not occur in modern Italian.
The Italians distinguish seven vowels: Italian vowels are all pronounced very quickly; hence there is but little difference in quantity between accented and unaccented sounds. Englishspeaking students must carefully avoid drawling the accented and slighting the unaccented syllables; they should try to give to every Italian vowel about the length of i in "bitter. A, close, is nearly like a in "fate": A, open, may be formed by trying to pronounce e in "bell" with the mouth very wide open: I is nearly like ee in "feet": U is nearly like oo in "boot ": The letters i and u are sometimes used to represent consonant sounds see 4 ; but in formulating rules they are always counted as vowels.
As close and open vowels are not distinguished in spelling, some rules are necessary: I Unaccented e and o are always close: In book words accented e and o are usually open. In all cases not covered by the first three rules, the quality of e and o will be marked in this book, an acute accent ' denoting the close, a circumflex A the open sound: B, f, m, p, q, v are pronounced as in English. A cc or a gg before e or i has merely the sound of ch in "chin" or g in "gem" prolonged: N before a q or a hard c or g has the sound of Eng. In annusare, dsino, casa, Chiusi, cMsa, cost, desidErio, naso, parasito, pfso, Pisa, pisillo, pbsa, ripbso, riso, susina, and their derivatives, and in some uncommon words.
In the adjective ending -dso and the adjective and substantive ending -ese: In the preterites and past participles of chiedere, chiudere, nascdndere, pdrre, ridere, ridere, rimanere, rispdndere, rddere, and all verbs in -endere; and in their compounds and derivatives: Exceptions to this rule are deridere, verbs in -clu'dere, and derivatives of rodere. U, unaccented, before a vowel, sounds like English w: In azzurro, dozzina, mezzo, pranzo, ribrezzo, romanzo, zeio, and many less common words.
In verbs in -izzare as utilizzare, "to utilize" ; except attizzare, dirizzare, guizzare, rizzare, stizzare, and their compounds, and a few uncommon words. The following combinations are to be noted: Ch used only before e and i is always li. Sch is like sk: Gli written gl if the following vowel be i is nearly like English lli in "million ": Gn is nearly like ni in "onion": Sc before e and i is nearly like sh in "ship ": Every letter in Italian is distinctly and separately sounded; the only exceptions are h, silent i see 4 , and the combinations mentioned in 5.
L, m, n, and r, when preceded by an accented vowel and followed by another consonant, are prolonged: The accent is nearly always the same as in Latin. In this book it will always be noted. Of the signs written here, students need use only the grave " , which is placed on the last syllable of oxytones and on some monosyllables; Italian writers do not agree as to the use of the other marks; some use the acute, and not the grave, on final e. Italian words are divided in such a way that, if possible, every syllable shall begin with a consonant: The article is not declined, but it agrees with its substantive in gender and number.
II pddre, the father; i fddri, the fathers. Lo stesso pddre, the same father. Lo scidme, the swarm; gli scidmi, the swarms. Lo zio, the uncle; gli zii, the uncles. L' udmo, the man; gl' insUtti, the insects. Before a vowel la becomes 1'; le becomes 1' before e. La mddre, the mother; le mddri, the mothers. L' ra, the hour; le ore, the hours; 1' erbe, the herbs. Some writers use il, i before z and before sce- or sci-. In poetry lo is often used for il. When the definite article is preceded by one of the prepositions di, da, a, in, con, su, per, the article and preposition are generally contracted into one word, -as shown in the following table con, per are often uncontracted: Cdlla mddre, with the mother; cdlle mddri, with the mothers.
Sull' udmo, on the man; per gli udmini, for the men. The word "some " is frequently rendered in Italian by di with the definite article. This is called the partitive genitive. Ddtemi del vino, give me some wine. Dille blle cdse, some fine things. In the following cases the definite article is used in Italian, though not in English: Before the possessive pronouns: Before an abstract noun or one denoting a whole class, unless the sense is partitive.
L'udmo propdne, man proposes. Ifidri ndscono dal seme, flowers spring from the seed. Before a noun and adjective used either in a specific or in a general but not in a partitive sense. L'dnno scdrso, last year i. IIpdvero Lulgi non vidne, the poor Lewis doesn't come. Gli udmini budni, good men i. Before a title followed by a proper name: Before family names; often before given names of women; occasionally before given names of well-known men. Ii Bidnchi mdrto, White is dead; la Pdtti cdnta, Patti sings.
Before names of countries and continents: It is often omitted in lists. Qudsta sua dfera, this work of his. Signora Mdnti, cdme sta, Mrs. Monti, how do you do? Fede, sperdnza, cariti, faith, hope, and charity. ViNni, amico mio, come, my friend. Dze bellissimi cdni, two very fine dogs. Un before a vowel or any consonant except s impure and z. Uno before s impure or z. Un -ddre, a father; un udtmo, a man. Uno scidme, a swarm; zno zio, an uncle. Una mddre, a mother; un' dra, an hour. In the following cases the indefinite article, though expressed in English, is omitted in Italian: Before a predicate noun expressing occupation, rank, or nationality, and not accompanied by ap adjective.
Egli e folta, he is a poet; sod" rarcMhse, I am a marquis.
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Sidte italidno, you are an Italian. Generally before an antecedent of a relative clause used in apposition to a preceding noun modified by a definite article or a demonstrative pronoun. L' Arno, fizme che travirsa Firinze, the Arno, a river which traverses Florence. After da meaning " as," " like," or " for. Da uomo, like a man. La pdrte piu Alta del n8stro c6rpo Z ii cApo.
La ptrte davinti del front capo si chiama viso. Nel viso ci s6no la fr6nte, gli 6cchi, ii is-called there are eyes naso, la b6cca, ii m6nto. C6gli 6cchi si v6dono le c6se. Col we-see things nAso si sentono gli od6ri. Ca b6cca si mangia, si bdve, si we-smell odors we-eat we-drink werespira.
Respirdre e mandare 1' tria gio nel pitto, e p i rimanbreathe dirla fu6ri. N6i respiriamo 1' Aria. Levate un p6sce dall' 'cqua, it We breathe Take muoire: Rossi is a merchant. Leaving Italy, he-went-away last j Lascidndo farti year to France, a country which he-wished to-visit with his brother fer voliva visitdre and a friend of the family. But he-returned to Italy the same torn, in month, saying: Another time I-shall-make dicindo viaggidcre m.
Paris is a big city; we-havecostimi m. Italian nouns are not declined. There are no neuter nouns in Italian. I fratlllo, the brother; mia sordlla, my sistet. II posta, the poet; la foetMssa, the poetess. Una spia, a spy; la ndstra guida, our guide. Of nouns denoting objects without sex some are masculine, some feminine. Their gender can often be determined by the final letter. All Italian nouns end in a, e, i, o, or u: Those ending in a are feminine; except colera, " cholera," qualcdsa, "something," Greek neuters in -ma,4 many geographical names, and a few other words, mostly foreign.
Un' dra, an hour; un telegrdmma, a telegram. Of those ending in e and i some are masculine, some feminine. All ending in -zione, -gione, or -udine are feminine. II fime, the river; la fdce, peace. Un d", a day; una metrdfoli, a metropolis. La ragidne, the reason; la servitidine, service. Those ending in a are masculine; except mino, "hand. II gindcchio, the knee; la mdno, the hand. This rule has very few exceptions. Nouns in -o or -e often drop that vowe.
Those ending in u are feminine; except soprappie, " surplus," and a few foreign words. La virtu, virtue; il bambur, bamboo. Masculine names of trees in o or e have a feminine form in a or e respectively, denoting their fruit; but il ddttero, "date," il fico, " fig," il limdnde, "lemon," il pdmo, "apple," are always the same, whether denoting the tree or the fruit. Un susino, a plum-tree; una susina, a plum. II noce, the walnut-tree; la ndce, the walnut. Questificki, these fig-trees, these figs. Feminines in unaccented a form their plural by changing a into e.
La strdda, the street; le strdde, the streets. Feminines in -ca and -ga form their plural in -che and -ghe respectively the h being inserted merely to indicate that the c and g keep their hard sound. Un' oca, a goose; mdlte dche, many geese. La bottega, the shop; parecchie botteghe, several shops. Nouns in unaccented -cia and -gia form their plural in -ce and -ge respectively. La gudncia, the cheek; le gudnce, the cheeks. Una cilidgia, a cherry; tdnte cilidge, so many cherries. Masculines in unaccented a and all nouns in unaccented o and e not ie form their plural in i.
Un podta, a poet; dzie fodti, two poets. La mdno, the hand; le mie mdni, my hands. Un mese, a month; ire mesi, three months. La cornice, the frame; qudttro cornici, four frames. Masculines in -ca and -ga form their plural in -chi and -ghi respectively. II nondrca, the monarch; i mondrchi, the monarchs. II colldga, the colleague; i colldghi, the colleagues. Nouns in unaccented -io form their plural by changing -io to -i often written 1, j, or ii. Lo spicchio, the mirror; g! II ciliegio, the cherry-tree; i cil'gi, the cherry-trees. Nouns in -go form their plural in -ghi. Nouns in -co form their plural in -chi if the penult is accented, otherwise in -ci.
Il castigo, the punishment; i castighi, the punishments. Un catdlogo, a catalogue; dde catdloghi, two catalogues. Un mddico, a doctor; sdi midici, six doctors. This rule has a number of exceptions. In the following lists, words whose irregular plural is rare are omitted. In general borrowed words and words whose plural is necessarily very rare keep the i: Ilfisidlogo, the physiologist; i fisidlogi, physiologists.
Antro dfago, cannibal; antrofdfagi, cannibals. Some masculines in o have an irregular plural in a; this plural is feminine. The most common are: Un id-io, a pair; sitte fidia, seven pairs. Li into brciccio, my arm; le Mae brdccia, thy arms. Li idbbro, the lip; le idbbra or iIidbbri, the lips. Brdcio, gin Accklo, lcibbro, and orecckio nearly always have the irregular plural when denoting the two arms, knees, lips, or ears belonging to the same body.
Li brIndisi, the toast; i brindisi, the toasts, Una sfidcie, a kind; O5tto sfiecie, eight kinds. La virtu', virtue; le virtu", the virtues. Una citid', a city; didc cithi', ten cities. The following nouns have irregular plurals: Me "ox," I pl. I7 al0tte e con la c6da nu6tano e guizzan9 via nell' acqua, 1esti l1sti c6me un lampo. Qu6lle al6tte si chiamano4 pinne. The seed, placed under ground, has3 sprouted; from one side it-has3 put-out4 shoots, which have-spread-out' through6 the ground, and from one side it-has3 sent forth the stalk, the little-branches,7 the leaves, and9 the flowers.
Like mignonettes,s many other26 plants, herbs, and9 flowers spring'1 from the seed. Flowers, herbs, grain, and trees arecalledn vegetables. Vegetables have3 roots, trunk, branches, twigs, leaves, flowers, and9 fruit. Plants first produce12 the flower and then the fruit. The trunk or stalk of plants is2 that13 which rests14 on the roots and 1 comes16 out from the ground;17 it-iscovered 8 with19 branches and with 19 leaves.
Of the stalk of plants, --for instance, of the trunk of trees, - we-make-use20 for many purposes; we-make21 furniture, doors, windows, the beams that support2 ceilings, ships, carriages, and9 cars. The branches of trees are-burned,23 and give-us24 fire. Vegetables in-order-to25 live have3 need of earth, of water, and9 of light. Adjectives agree with their substantives in gender and number. An adjective modifying two nouns of dif. II gdtto e fiulito, the cat is neat; stdnze jfulite, neat rooms. Una cdsa e un giardino bellini, a pretty house and garden.
Numeral and pronominal adjectives, billo, brdvo, budno, and the commonest adjectives of size and quantity, precede their nouns; adjectives of nationality, shape, and material follow. Adjectives whose use is prompted by emotion, and adjectives used in a figurative sense, generally precede. Otherwise, of the noun and adjective, the one that contains the chief idea comes last. Trfifo idne, too much bread. Questa fdlla rotdnda, this round ball; due cdni, two dogs. La budna mddre, the good mother; fdver' uomo, poor man!
E un udmo gentilissimo, he is a kind man. Adjectives ending in o are masculine, and form their feminine in a. Adjectives in e are invariable in the singular. IRagdzzo felice, happy boy; ragdzza felice, happy girl. Adjectives form their plural in the same way as nouns see 22, Dle uonini felici, two happy men; tre donne felici, three happy women. Pareccki, "several," has for its feminine parecchie. Qutdlche, "some," is used only in the singular, even when the meaning is plural: When preceding a noun, bello, "beautiful," has forms similar to those of the definite article; and Sdnto, " Saint," and grdnde, "great," have corresponding forms in the singular.
The masculine of these words which is the only irregular part is, therefore, as follows: Before s impure or z: When used after a noun or in the predicate these adjectives have their full forms billo, belli, Sdnto, Sdnti, grdnde, grdndi, buono, buoni. Un bel quddro, a fine picture; dde bli Idti, two fine beds.
Un billo scaffdle, a fine bookcase; qudttro bigli stivdli, four fine boots. Un bell' dndito, a fine hall; mdlti bMgli orologi, many fine clocks. Un granfudco, a big fire; grdndi camini, big fire-places. Un grdnde scidme, a great swarm; ilgrdnde zifolo, the large bung. Un grand' armddio, a big wardrobe; venti grdndi dlberi, twenty big trees. Una grdnde cdmera, a large bedroom; cinque grdndi findstre, five big windows. Un buon lime, a good lamp; buonifiammrferi, good matches. Una budna cucina, a good kitchen; le budne candle, the good candles. I1 bambino e buono, the child is good.
Any adjective of either gender or either number may be used as a noun. I budni, the good; la billa, the beautiful woman. All Italian adjectives form their comparative by prefixing piu "more," and their superlative by prefixing the definite article to the comparative. When the superlative immediately follows the noun, this article is omitted. Lgngo, long; fpi lz ngo, longer; il piu idngo, the longest. The following adjectives have an irregular comparison in addition to the regular one: Alto, high; fii dlto or superidre; il fii dlto or il superidre.
Bdsso, low; piu bdsso or inferiore; il fiu bdsso or 1' inferidre,. Piccolo, small; fIiii pizccolo or mincre;- iliil fiz' ccolo or il mirnore. Pietro e' itfratello rnino're, Peter is the youngest brother. But before a noun, a pronoun, or a numeral "than " is rendered by the preposition di see Riccdrdo 'eipeggidre di me, Richard is worse than 1.
In speaking of time, "longer " after a negative is "1i Ex.: Ecco 8 perchii la lfi'na 6ra la vedhiamo' e 6ra non la vedialmo9 phi, 6ra ne vedhiamo9 mezza, 6ra uno spicchio, 6ra un po' phiu, 6ra un po' me'no, sec6ndo che di 6ssa ci si preSenta'0 Aina piirte rnaggi6re o min6re illumina'ta dal s6le.
Le ste'lle s6no' tuitti que'i" pfinti lumin6si che vedia'mo 9 brillalre di nOtte nel firmaimento. Gli e1 che il s61e e m6no lontano di 6sse dalla terra che n6i abitiamo. The moon is' in the middle of2 the sky. The moon is1 round; it-looks3 perfectly round like a melon. And it-looks," too, as big as a melon. The moon renders6 a great service to men: The most beautiful,'4 the most intense14 light comes" from the sun. Instead of a word expressing size or quality the Italians often use a suffix. This suffix may be added to a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. When added to an adjective, and generally when added to a noun, it takes the gender of the word to which it is affixed: A word loses its final vowel before a suffix; but the preceding consonant, if it be c or g, must keep its former quality: The commonest ending is -issimo fem.
Adverbs in -minte add the -issima before the -minte see Any adjective may take it, and it is very often used in cases where it would be entirely superfluous in English. Ldrgo, wide; largzissimo, very wide. Bdne, well; benissimo, very well. Grdnde, big; grandissimo, very big. Fa un tempo bellissimo, it's beautiful weather. The principal suffix denoting bigness is -one; it is always masculine, but has a rare feminine form, -dna.
Libro, book; librdne, big book. Cdsa, house; casone, large house. Boccia, decanter; boccidna, big decanter. The most important suffixes denoting smallness are -ino, "-cino, -icino, -iccino, -itto, - llo, -cillo, -icillo, -arillo, -erillo, -6 tto, -ccio, -izzo, -udlo, with their fem. These endings, especially -zccio, are often used to express affection; some of them may be used to express pity or contempt. Otto sometimes means " somewhat large " instead of " small. Sordlla, sister; sorellina, little sister. Billo, beautiful; bellino, pretty. Brzitto, ugly; bruttino, rather ugly.
Pidzza, square; fiazzUtta, little square. Gidrgio, George; Giorgetto, Georgie. Aquila, eagle; aquildtto, eaglet. Cdsa, house; casotta, rather large house. Giovdnni, John; Giovannzccio, dear little Johnny. Pdzzo, mad; pazzarZlla, poor mad woman. Povero, poor; foverini, poor things! The ending -dccio denotes worthlessness. Roba, stuff, goods; robdccia, trash. Alfrddo, Alfred; Alfreddccio, naughty Alfred.
Of the endings added to nouns -ino is by far the most common; the only ones that are freely used to form new compounds are -ino, " little," -dne, "great," -uiccio, "dear," and -dccio, "bad. Others as -cino, -icino, -dllo, -cdllo, -icillo, -argllo, -erillo cannot be attached to any word at pleasure, their use being determined by precedent or euphony. Sometimes several suffixes are added at once to the same word: The cardinal numerals are: Uno has a feminine u'na; when used adjectively it has the same forms as the indefinite article; so also ventzino, etc.
The plural of mille is mila. I No conjunction is used between the different parts of a number: If the noun modified by ventino, trentino, etc. Sessantzina lira or lire sessantina, 61 francs. In dates the definite article is prefixed to the number representing the year, if that number follows a preposition, or does not follow the name of a month. Cimdncano vinti minz'ti duIe qildttro, it's twenty minutes to four. The ordinal numerals are: All of them form their feminines and plurals like other adjectives in o.
Le settantdsibne quinte case, the 75th things. Ordinal numerals are used after the words "1book," "1chapter," and the names of rulers; but no article intervenes. For the day of the month, except the first, a cardinal numher is used. Ii dzi cinque d' ajirile or ii cinque ajhrile, the fifth of April.
Lllfrimo di mdggio, the first of May. The expressions zina deci'nla, runa ventz'na, zuna trenti'na, etc. Un jidio di scdrfie, a pair of shoes. Una cinquantina di jierso'ne, some fifty persons. L' ho visto Parechie vd5ite, I've seen it several times. Un gi6rno e" ventiqua'ttr' 6re. L' or olgio hall dfidici fire; e le "halsegna'te gilro giro Alla, mfistra. La lancktta, picclina se'gna'14 le 6re. Ora s6no2 le d6dici; tutte e dfe le lanc6tte s6non sflle d6dici. Fra un' 6ra la lancetta grande avr s18 girata tuitta la m6 -stra, e sara1' daccapo sul numero 12, e la lanc6tta piccina sarai1 sull' to.
A year is1 days. Every seven days is' a week. The days of the week are-called2: Sunday3 is1 a4 holiday; the other days we-work,5 and therefore they-are-called2 working-days. The year is-divided6 into twelve months. The months are-called 2: April, June, September, and4 November have 0 thirty days.
February is' the shortest month, because it-hasn twenty-eight days only. The year begins' from January; January is,' then,14 the first month of the year. The year ends15 with December; so'4 December is' the last month of the year. For the indefinite pronouns, see I The demonstrative pronouns used adjectively are questo, "this," and quello or cotesto, "that.
Italian grammar. By C. H. Grandgent Rev. and enl.
Questo and cotesto are inflected like other adjectives; but they generally drop o before a vowel. Que'llo is inflected like bEllo see 29, c. Quest' udmo, this man; queste ragdzze, these girls. Quel bambino, that infant; quHi fancizUli, those children. Quell' amico, that friend; qug4li spisi, that couple.
Qudllo zio, that uncle; qudle signdre, those ladies. Qudsto and quello are also used substantively for "this," "that," "this one," "that one": Costui and colbi mean respectively the same as questi and quegli, but are not defective, having a feminine singular costei, coldi, and a plural both genders alike costdro, coldro.
Costui is often used in a depreciative sense. Qudsti e francese e qudgli e tedksco, this man is French and that one is German. Chi e costhi, who is this fellow? Pdrlo di colii, I speak of that man. Quello and questo, qudgli and questi mean also " the former," " the latter. Chi lavdra or colhi che lavdra, he who works. Quel che dico io, the one I mean. A quel che sbnto, from what I hear. The interrogative "who," "whom," is chi. Qudle has a plural qudli; chi and che are invariable.
Chi vedo, whom do I see? Di chi farldte, of whom do you speak? Che cdsa dice, what does he say? Che or qudli libri avete comprdto, what books did you buy? Qudle di questi volgmi e il frimo, which of these volumes is the first? The interrogative " whose " is di chi. In exclamations "what a," "what," are rendered by che or qudle without any article. Che bel faise, what a beautiful country! The principal relative pronouns are che, cui, il qudle: Note that chi is used in indirect, as well as in direct questions. Che and cui are invariable. In poetry inde is often used to signify of which or from which.
La lingua che si pdria, the language which we speak. L' udmo del qudle si trdtta, the man of whom we are speaking. Le persone a cdi or dlle qudli fidrlo, the persons to whom I speak. Lo scritto di cdi fdrlo, the work I am speaking of. Una signora, il cui ndme e Lucia, a lady whose name is Lucy.
L' autdre, del cdi libro si fdrla, the author whose book we are speaking of. Le chidse ddlle qudli si vedono le c9jole, the churches whose domes we see. Le cdse che ho comprdte, the houses I have bought. Qudle il fddre idle k il figlio, as is the father, so is the son b. Chi ha la sanit e' ricco, he who has health is rich. Checche is now but little used. Chidnque sidle, whoever you may be. Tdtto quel che volete, whatever you wish.
Qudli cke siano i vostri motivi, whatever your mptives may be Qualdnque siano i sudi taldcnti, whatever his talents may be. In qualznque stdto che io mi trdvi, in whatever condition I may find myself. The possessive pronouns are: Lo'ro is invariable; the others agree with the object possessed: Qutsto capplto e ntio, this hat is mine. Quzesto capfillo ' il ino, tkis hat is mine i. The article unless it might be used in English is omitted before the possessive: The possessive, when not necessary for clearness, is usually replaced by a definite article.
COme sta la mdmma, how is your mother? Ha perdito il giudizio, he has lost his senses. Bdttono i iiddi, they stamp their feet. When the name of the thing possessed is direct object of a verb, the Italians often use instead of the possessive a conjunctive personal pronoun see 47 and a definite article. If the thing possessed be a part of the body or clothing, this construction is frequent, even when the name of the thing is not object of a verb.
Si strdppa i capilli, he tears his hair lit. Mi tdglio il dito, I cut my finger I cut to myself the finger. II cdne gli agguant' la gdmba, the dog seized his leg seized to him the leg. Mi duole il cdpo, my head aches to me aches the head. When the possessor is not the subject of the sentence, "his," "her" are, for the sake of clearness, often rendered di Mii, di 1li: Charles V made' of Siena a fief for his so-n- Philip HI, who cededit 2 to Cosimo 1, and the latter built-there' the fort which the Spaniards had-tried-to 4 construct.
The city remained" under the rule of the good dukes of Lorraine, until Napoleon made-it6 capital of the department of the Ombrone. After the fall of the emperor, it-returned7 under the dominion of the dukes. In' i86o it-was9 the first Tuscan city that voted'0 the union of Italy under Victor Emmanuel 11, the only honest king of whom history speaks. Personal pronouns are divided into two classes, conjunctive and disjunctive: He to you it gives for me. Conjunctive pronouns are always unaccented, and cannot be separated from the verb, which they sometimes follow but oftener precede, as will be explained in They are used only as direct object of a verb or as indirect object without a preposition.
Ti, thee, to thee. Ci, us, to us. Si reflexive , himself, to himself; herself, to herself; itself, to itself. Si reflexive , themselves, to themselves. Ci vedite, you see us; vi dico litto, I tell you everything. Si viste, he dresses himself; si divdrtono, they amuse them. I In certain idiomatic phrases la represents an indefinite object: I give it to you. Cdme Potiva sapire se io veniva o no - Lo ha indovindto. Lo trovdi, I found him; gli fici un regdlo, I made him a present; la Idscia, he leaves her; le scrive, he writes to her. Li cercdte, you seek them masc. All plural reflexive pronouns are used also as reciprocal pronouns.
A verb is called reflexive when it has as direct or indirect object a conjunctive pronoun representing the same person as its subject. Midefendo, I defend myself; vi lavdte, you wash yourselves. Sifa ondre, she does herself credit; si diano, they hate each other; ci amidmo, we love one another. Ne fdrla, he speaks of it; ne ho, I have some. Non ne abbidmo, we haven't any; ne volite, do you want any? Tu ne afprofitti di questa liberti, you make good use of this liberty. Vi, " you," and ci and ne, "us," are not distinguished by form nor position from the adverbs vi, ci, meaning " there," "here," "to it," "to them,"t and the adverb ne, "thence "' see The conjunctive pronouns, except loro, immediately precede the verb: Ldro always follows the verb, but is never united to it: When an infinitive depends immediately without an intervening preposition on another verb, a conjunctive pronoun belonging to the infinitive may go with either verb: If, however, the main verb is impersonal, it cannot take the object of the infinitive: If the main verb is fdre, and the dependent infinitive has a direct object, the object of fdre, if it has one, must be indirect: In literature a pronoun often follows a verb that begins a sentence.
When a conjunctive pronoun is joined to an infinitive, that infinitive drops its final e; if it ends in -rre, it drops -re: The final vowel of mi, ti, si is often, and that of lo, la is nearly always elided before a verb beginning with a vowel: All conjunctive pronouns except gli and glie see 50 double their initial consonant when added to any form of a verb that ends in an accented vowel: Pronouns are joined to the interjection ecco, "see here," just as they are joined to the imperative of a verb: When two conjunctive pronouns come together, the indirect object precedes the direct: Loro, however, always comes last: Mi, ti, ci, vi, si change their i to e before lo, la, li, le, ne pronoun or adverb ; and if the two words follow the verb, they are joined together: These forms are so called because they do not necessarily stand next to the verb.
Disjunctive pronouns have two cases, nominative and objective. The objective case is used only after prepositions for exceptions, see 51, a, b. The disjunctive forms are these: Tu, thou; te, thee. Ndi, we; ndi, us. Vdi, you; vdi, you. Asse, Idro illeno , they fem. La cdsa e grandissimna, e intorno ad issa c' e un giardino, the house is very large, and around it there is a garden. Non e viro, it isn't true; fiz've, it rains. In speaking of things the different forms of esso are generally employed.
Issi, e'sse are used for the nominative in written Italian, but in the spoken language they are replaced by bli, Idi, idro; for the objective lIi, eIi, ldro are used both in conversation and in writing. Eglino and dlleno are antique forms. For "he who," etc. Qudste cdse slno vire anch' isse, these things are true, too. Ella fdrla con lIro, she speaks with them. Ldi 2 gidvane ma di 2 vicchio, she is young, but he is old. Vdnnero da nWi anch' issi, they came to us, too. When expressed for clearness, emphasis, or euphony , they may precede or follow the verb; in dependent clauses they nearly always follow.
The subject of an interrogative verb usually comes after it, as in English. Parlidmo di li, we speak of him; non vddo, I don't go. S' io fissi ricco cdme e Igli,'if I were rich as he is. Lo ftcero da se, they did it by themselves. Use the objective case: Pdrlo a vdi signdre, I speak to you, sir. Mi fidce dnche a. Vedo ii e ZIi, I see him and her. Lo do a mio fddre e a te, I give it to my father and to thee.
In speaking of a company, a class, or a people noi aitri, vdi ditri which are also written as one word are used for ndi, vdi. Ndi ditri italidni, we Italians. Vdi dltri fittdri, you painters. Ndi stessi la vedemmo, we saw her ourselves. Ci amidmo 1' un l'dltro, we love one another. In Florence illa is often shortened into la plural le , which is used of both persons and things.
La non vidne, she doesn't come. Pdre che la si fdssa tenbr in mdno, it looks as if it might be held in the hand. In impersonal phrases like "it is" the subject, "it," is occasionally expressed in Italian; it is then translated egli, which in the spoken language is shortened into gli. Gli e che, it is because. This word really means "it," and takes the verb in the third person; but an adjective or past participle modifying it agrees in gender with the person it represents. The plural of Ella is Ldro or ldro , which takes the verb in the third person plural. Lei or Ella e tedlsco, signdre, you are German, sir.
Sdno lidto che La stia bdne see 51, g , I'm glad you are well. E L6ro, d6ve vdnno, and you, where are you going? Ldro drano gid fartiti, you were already gone. Signorine, Idro slno mdlto studidse, young ladies, you are very studious. Like other personal pronouns, Ella and Ldro are very often omitted in the nominative. Lei trfppo gentile or e trdppo gentile, you are too kind. Cdme stdnno, how do you pl. The conjunctive forms of Ella are La, Le or la, le , those of Ldro are Li, Le, Ldro or li, le, ldro ; they occupy the same positions and undergo the same modifications as the corresponding pronouns of the third person see 48, 49, The reflexive pronoun of Ella and Ldro is si.
Le fromntto di visitdrla, I promise you to visit you. Glidlo do, I give it to you. La prigo d' accomoddrsi, I beg you to seat yourself. Vidi Ldi e il bdbbo, I saw you and your father see 51, b, 2. Dico ldro, I tell you pl. Le cercdva, I was looking for you fer. Si divdrtono, szgnorini, are you enjoying yourselves, young gentlemen? The possessive of Ella is Suo or szo. La Szia gradita Idttera, your welcome letter. Vdi qui, PiDtro, You here, Peter? Vdi sidte dlti tztti e dzie, you are tall, both of you. Tu is used also, like English "thou," in poetry and poetic prose.
The plural of tu is voi. Ti chidmo Enrico, I call you Henry. Dove sdi tzi, where art thou? Viglio veddrvi, figliudli midi, my children, I wish to see you. Li guardo5 solam6nte e riscendo6 sdbito. In Southern Italy, however, vdi is the form popularly used. Ii dol6re lo fa'5 strillare; Oile grida c6rrono"s ii bdbbo e la mamma che lo racc6lgono2" esclamindo2': Sir, we are' alone.
So it seems2 looking' around. I repeat4 to you that we are' alone louder. But I tell5 you that I admit-it. It is' time to-raise8 the mask - Armnindao. And to15 speak plainly. That is7 what I wantedl2 to15 do, but they inter tupted1 me all-the-time. Do"15 you see'6 that grove over-there? There nobody will-interrupt'8 you. Must'9 I go there to speak surprised? Enter" GORO with two guns. Taking21 one of-them Take" the other. Thanks, I am"23not24 a"2 hunter. Take22 it, or-else'6 - brandishing" a thick club. Willingly - to28 satisfy you - excuse-me,29 is7 it loaded?
To-be-brief," you hate31 me; you must82 hate me. So47 over-there in that grove - at eighty paces from-each-other4- bang!
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But I have"3 n't24 these sinister intentions, whichare15 contrary to my principles. In that50 case you will-permit39 this-man-to-amusehimself-by-shaking40 the dust from your41 black coat with that club. The above example is, according to its meaning, either translated: Anche noi abbiamo veduto i quadri, or: Noi abbiamo veduto anche i quadri. Quanti fanciulli aveva Tuomo?
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Avevate voi veduto i poeti? Io aveva due fratelli e tre sorelle. L'uomo aveva tre fanciulli.
No, non avevarao veduto i poeti. Third Lesson, Declension of substantives. Italian nouns form the different cases of the Singular and Plural by means of prepositions. These prepositions, however, are not, as in English, simply put before the article, but undergo a contraction with the article into one word.
There are five cases both in the Singular and Plural ; the nominative and accusative are always alike. Singular, of the father — di il padre of the mother — di la madre of the pupil — di lo scolare — di Tanima — di V angelo Plural.
Plural to the fathers — a i padri contr. It is used to express a source or origin, distance or removal, and also a dwelling upon, a characteristic token or fitness for anything. Like di and a, this preposition is joined with the definite article, and forms the following contractions: These prepositions are not liable to contraction before the indefinite article. It may be observed, however, that di commonly drops its final i and takes an apostrophe in its stead, as: Da, on the contrary, is never apostrophised. Also the possessive adjectives mio, mia, my; tuo, tit a, thy; suo, sua, his, her, its; nostro, nostra, our, and vostro, vostra, your for both genders and numbers , when immediately before a substantive expressing a relation but only in the singular , are declined with di, a, and da; and so are all the pronouns, if no article be required be- fore them.
Survey of the declensions. Before consonants, except s impura. In the same manner are declined the above mentioned possessive adjectives mio, my, tuo, thy, suo, his, her etc. II creatdre, the creator. II padre del fanciullo. La porta della casa. Le porte delle case. Le finestre dei palazzi. II gat to e un animale. I gaiti sono i nemici dei sorci. Io do il ritratto aU'amico.
Io do le rose ai cugini ed alle cugine. Voi date gli scrigni agli amici ed alle amiche. I nemici degli uomini. I fogli dei libri e dei quaderni writing-books. Le foglie di questi fiori. Le finest re di questa casa. Io vengo dalla citta. The brother of the cousin m. The sisters of the cousin f. The gates of the town. The houses of the towns. The windows of the houses. G-od is the creator of the world. The dog is the enemy of the cat. The dog is the friend of the man. I give the book to the brother. The sleep of the child. Of the death of my del mlo friend m. The leaves of the roses and of the trees of the garden.
Here are the clothes dbiti, m. We speak Not parlidmo of the trees and of the plants of the earth. I come from the duke's palace. Figli or figliuoli PI. Thus a lady would say: Ho io il libro del cugino? Hai tu il ritratto della zia? Ha egli veduto il giardino del re? I fanciulli hanno gli scrigni? Chi who aveva la penna del fratello? Di ehi sono quelle pere? Di cbi sono questi libri? Avete voi veduto il cane del- Tamico? Di cbi sono queste oche? Tu hai il libro del cugino.
Si, io bo il ritratto della zia. Si, egli ha veduto il giardino ed il castello del re. Si, i fanciulli hanno gli scrigni. Io aveva la penna del fratello. Sono di mio fratello. Sono del re e della regina. Questi libri sono di vostro padre. Ecco il cane deiramico. Sono di vostra cngina. Frequently the cases of substantives are governed by prepositions, which appear almost in every sentence, and should therefore be learned early. Generally speaking the Italian prepositions govern no particular case, i. In elegant speech, however, some of them are used with the genitive and dative case, whereby a slight variation in the original signification is effected.
The prepositions in in , con with , su on , tra, fra between , and per for are often contracted with the ar- ticle in one word; such is usually the case with in, con, and su, and sometimes with tra, fra, and per, as the pupil may learn from the following table. Words, La scudla, the school. Io sdno, I am tu sii, thou art egli e, he is ella e, she is P. II gatto e dietro la stufa. Siete voi in cucina? Luigi e da mio padre. I cavalli sono davanti la porta. II fanciullo e sotto Talbero. The contractions with tra and the article are very rare. Questa pera e per mia zia.
Mia zia e in chiesa. Mia cugina sta a Parigi Paris nella casa di mia zia. Io ho il coltello in mano. Egli aveva le mani in tasca. II libro e neUa tas- ca del padre. I am before the house of the physician. Lewis is in the garden. The servant is in the room. The masters are at school. The birds are on the roof of the church. I speak io pdrlo of the coat Gen. My sister is at home. The two knives are upon the table. Where are the cats? They are in the kitchen. The three children of my cousin m. The horses are in the water.
The penknife of the boy is on the table. I went Sono andato with my sister. I come with the friend of my brother. Dove e mio figlio? I fanciulli sono dal maestro? Di che cosa what parli speaTcest tu? Dove abita tuo cugino? Vostra cugina e in iscuola? Chi e andato in chiesa? E in casa vostro fratello? La serva e in cucina o in giardino?
Avevate voi veduto le anitre ducks nel cortile? Con chi with whom siete andati? Egli e in giardino. No, essi giuocano play da- van ti alia casa. Io parlo del re. Io parlo dei cavalli. No, essa e in chiesa. No, e andato dal medico. E nel giardino del vicino. Noi avevamo veduto le anitre,, e le oche. Noi siamo andati con nostra padre. Mio fratello e andato m. In English the word some or any often precedes a substantive, when no particular kind, measure or quality- is meant, as: Thus the wine, the beer, the oil means: When such words are used in quite an indefinite and general sense, both languages agree, and no article pre- cedes the substantive.
He sells paper, pencils, and ink, egli vende carta, matite ed inchiostro. The pupil is advised to compare the following ex- amples: Io vedo le dnitre, I see the ducks. Io vedo deUe anitre, I see some a few ducks. Io vedo anitre, I see ducks but no geese. Egli vende del tobacco, he sells tobacco and other ar- ticles. JEgli vende tobacco, he is a tobacconist. In negative sentences the partitive sense is most com- monly expressed by the omission of the article.
We have no flowers. You have neither money nor friends. Non avete ne danaro ne amid. Xa farina, the flour, meal. Jo il zucchero, the sugar. Io spirito, the spirit. Io straniero, the stranger. Io avrd, I shall have tu avrdi, thou wilt have egli avrd, he will have. Za colza, the stocking, il Zd e, the milk. Io avro del pane e della farina. Avrete voi anche del sale? Eglino avranno anche del danaro. Tu avrai del formaggio. Luigi avra della carta e deirinchiostro. Questo mercante vende olio ed aceto. Luigi avra anche dei libri e delle matite. Avevano esse dei fiori?
Io do a tno cugino delle pere e delle susine. Nel cortile sono le oche e le anitre. Vi sono oche nel cortile. Gli stranieri avranno del danaro. Noi avremo della minestra e della carne. Nel giardino vi sono alberi, frutta e fiori. You will have milk and eggs. Here is the bread. Here is some bread. My father had lead and iron. This child had some flowers. There are soup, oil and vinegar. The merchant had sugar and coffee. The queen had gold and silver. I give to the boys books, pencils and pens.
They will also have some paper and ink. My uncle sells paper, pencils, pens and ink. Lewis has horses and dogs. We have seen horses. Thy sister will have shoes and stockings. I give to thy brother clothes and flowers. Shall you have any friends m. These men are foreigners. Abbiamo noi della farina? Abbiamo noi ancbe del sale? Ha Ella delle matite? Hanno essi delle pere? Che cosa hai tu sotto il brac- cio arm?
Per chi whom sono questi libri? Tua sorella ha dello zuc- chero? Avete delle frutta in casa? Che cosa c'e da my aunts? No, signora Madam , ma, abbiamo del denaro. Abbiamo carne e pane. No, ma ho delle penne. Essi sono per mio cugino. In Russia c'e dell'oro. Ella ha dello zucchero e del caffe. Si, egli avra dei quaderni, del- l'inchio8tro e delle penne. Si, signore Sir , abbiamo delle frutta.
Vi sono libri e qnadri. The "partitive genitive" has its own declension, i. The dative of this declension, however, is very rare. It is formed by putting a or ad before the partitive articles del, della, dello, delV ; pi. You always think off money, of wine, of books, voi pensate sempre a del danaro y a del vino, a dei libri. In familiar conversation Italians often say cosa? The genitive case of this declension is of frequent occurrence and very simple.
Here the article is entirely omitted, di taking its place before the substantive, as: Nona, del vino, some wine. Such is the case, when the substantive is governed by another word implying measure, weight, number or quantity, as: Una boUiglia di vino, a bottle of wine. Un bicchiere d'acqua, a glass of water.
Died libbre di came, ten pounds of meat. Una quantita di zucchero, a great deal of sugar. English compound substantives are often rendered by this genitive, as: II maestro di scuola, the school-master. II mercante di vino, the wine-merchant. Adjectives, denoting the material of which a thing is made, are rendered by substantives with di, as: Una tavola di legno, a wooden table. This genitive is also governed by some adverbs of quantity, as: Qualche cosa di grande, something grand.
The nominative and accusative case of this partitive form are always alike. The pupil would be entirely wrong in saying as in French: A c " I ddte scarpe, some shoes. Una botiiglia, a bottle. Za forchetta, the fork. But he may say: The usual manner of rendering such expressions does not differ from English.
Ecco una bottiglia di vino. Noi abbiamo comprato tre chilogrammi di zuccbero. Egli ha venduto due quintali di caffe. La regina aveva un gran numero di cavalli. Io penso a dell'oro e a dell'argento. Tu pensi sempre a balli ed a concerti. Ho ricevuto questi libri da degli amici. Mia zia avra una dozzina di calze. Voi avrete un foglio di carta. II contadino aveva cinque buoi, dieci cavalli ed una quantita di porci.
Egli ha bevuto troppo too much vino. Voi avrete un orologio d'oro. II vicino ha comprato dieci chili di cioccolata chocolate. Ho ricevuto una lettera e una scatola da mia zia. Abbiamo ve- duto una moltitudine di persone. I shall have some pens. Thou wilt have a sheet of paper. She will have some pencils. We shall have a glass of wine. My brother will- have nothing good. I shall also have a bottle of wine. I have drunk two glasses of water and a bottle of beer. We had received two kilograms of sugar, six kilograms of coffee and ten liters of wine.
You will have a great many looking-glasses and many boxes. The pea- sant has bought ten oxen and a wooden house. In this box there are seven meters of cloth. These ffersons have sold a dozen of boots. We had a silver watch and a gold ring. Shall you have a wooden table or a stone one? We have seen three — six — nine persons. He has received a great many letters.
We shall have nine meters of cloth. Have you drunk a bottle of wine? We have not drunk a bottle of wine, but a cup of coffee. Give me a sheet of paper. What have you done? Che cosa avete bevuto? Noi abbiamo bevuto un bic- chiere d'acqua. The sentence must be rendered thus: Avete una tavola di legno o di pietra, have you a table of wood or of stone? Quanti chilogrammi cbili di zucchero avete comprati? Sapete Do you know qualche cosa di nuovo new?
Quanto How much danaro bai? Aveva no eglino ricevuto la sea tola di legno?
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Dove avete veduto il maestro di musica? Aveva egli dei fiori? Avete voi delle case? Pensi thinkest tu a del vino? Quanti metri volete will you di questo panno? Da chi avete comprato gli orologi? Di chi e questa forchetta d'argento? Datemi una dozzina di ca- mice e un paio di stivali? Noi abbiamo comprato tre cbili di zucchero. No, non so know niente di nuovo. Io ho cinque lire franks. Noi abbiamo veduto il maestro nel giardino.
Si, aveva molti fiori. No, io penso a della birra. Ecco, signore, le camice e gli stivali. Terminations modifying the meaning of substantives. The Italian language abounds in terminations that serve to augment or diminish the original idea of a word. By the addition of these syllables, the same word under- goes so many modifications, that sometimes two and more adjectives are not able to render the meaning ex- pressed by those terminations.
Thus, for instance, avaro means: Un giovane means a youth ; un giovanotto, a smart young man. The diminutive terminations afford a still greater variety of modifications. A word, which is already a diminutive, may, by the addition of other diminutive syllables, express the most singular modifications of the original signification. IAbrettuccio, libricciuolo, libretticciuolo, li- bruccio cannot be rendered exactly in English. These terminations express strength, bigness and greatness. The syllable — ino frequently serves in familiar conver- sation to denote a younger member of a noble family.
Thus conte means count, and contessa countess, whereas contino and contessina mean the young count and the young countess. Thus casella from casa, house will hardly ever be met with ; the usual form being casetta. Casino signifies a cottage and a ball-room, but it has now degenerated to the far worse meaning of "womens' tavern".
Giovinotto means a smart young man, whereas aquilotto does not mean a strong eagle, but a young eagle still unfledged. For the sake of euphony a letter or a syllable is often inserted before these terminations, as: It must be well understood that the use of these syllables is not obligatory in Italian. Besides, not every word that appears with one of these syllables, is really modified by them. In some words, e. II gigdnte, the giant.
Io era, I was. V Terminations modifying the meaning of substantives. Egli e un medi- castro. Dove sono i libri di questo poetastro? Dove abita questo poverino? Egli sta in quella casuccia. Ho comprato un ombrellino per mia madre. Che cosa vuole wants questo vecchietto? II gigante aveva una barbetta ridicola. Egli era un povero fratuzzo. I forestieri erano nella barchetta del contadinello.
Questo giovinotto e vostro cugino? Si, Signore, e mio cugino. Have you seen the little child of the foreigner? He was a vigorous young man of much spirit. This woman has a nice little girl. You will have three thick books. This quack was very ignorant. Thou wast very unhappy, my poor boy. Who is this tall young man? There are many bad physicians and bad poets in this country. This little dog cagnolino belongs to b del my little brother and to my little sister.
Have you seen the large palace of the young prince? Who is that young lady signora, lady? She is the sister of the young count. Di chi e questo libretto? Da chi avete comprato questo libraccio? Volete entrare enter nella mia barchetta? Che cosa volete fare do di questo cappellone? Avete dato given un poco di latte al nostro cagnolino? Che cosa hai perduto lost , po- verina my poor girl? Non e egli un bellissimo very fine ragazzino? Delia see the Poss. Dal libraio bookseller dietro la chiesetta. No, grazie thank you , signo- rino! Lo dard I shall give it a questo povero vecchierello.
No, non ancora not yet. Ho perduto il danaro del mio fratellino. Thou hast reason tu as raison. Apri open la tua manina! No, non v6glio I will not! Che cosa pensi dost thou think Egli e un pazzerelio pazzo, tu del tuo cuginetto? There are in Italian: Proper names of persons, christian and family names, as: Names of countries, provinces, mountains, rivers lakes, towns, as: As a rule, the former and the names of towns have no article, whereas the latter usually take the definite article; being, of course, declined like all other sub- stantives, as: The declension of proper names of persons or towns is very simple; they merely take di, a, and da in order to form their respective cases.
Ace" I GiMtof Julia. William's hat, Henry's book, Julia's mother. II cappdlo di Guglielmo the hat of William ; it libro di Enrico the book of Henry ; la madre di Giulia the mother of Julia ; the nominative or accusative always preceding the genitive case. He goes to Paris, egli va a Parigi.
He lives at Aix-la-chapelle, egli dimdra ad Aquisgrdna. Farther explanations will be given in the 2 nd Part. II gudnto, the glove. Federico Federigo , Frederick. Ecco le favole di Esopo. Date la scatola a Sofia. Date la penna ad Enrico. Dove sono i figli della signora Brown? Ecco la casa della signora Camozzi. Ieri eravamo a Firenze. Siete stato a Vienna?
Tardini; la signora Uberti, Mrs. With names of princes one uses simply di before the names of the countries they belong to. II corso del Keno e lungo. Ecco una carta map della Germania. Io fui da Giacomo e da Pietro at P. Tuo fratello e arrivato da Venezia. Luigi Filippo, re di Fran- cia, e morto in Inghilterra. Ecco i cavalli di Carlo. Dove erano gli specchi di Luigia? Avete letto le 6pere works di Goethe? My father is in Paris. My uncle is in Vienna. Pa- ris is the capital of della France, and Vienna is the capital of Austria.
Thy mother is in America. Where are Sophia's gloves? Where are Frederick's books? France was always the friend f. I come from Florence. Yesterday I was at William's, and at Sophia's. I have got this book from Lewis. This poet died transl. The king of Spain and the queen of England are in Paris.
The course of the Po is long. Where dost thou come from? Dove so no i guanti di Teresa? Che which paese e questo? Che citta e questa? Quale e la capitale della Sas- sonia? Quale e la capitale dell' Au- stria? Chi e qui who is there? A chi date voi questi libri? Quante citta avete vedute in Italia? Avete letto le poesie poems del Leopardi? Dove foste were you ieri? Io era a Parigi. La citta di Londra. Li them diamo we give al signor Giorgio.
Fummo we were dalla Sig- nora Piavossi e da Teresa. The auxiliary yerb Avere, to have. Io ho, I have. Io ho avuto, I have had. Io avrb avuto, I shall have had. Io avrei avuto,, I should have had. Ch'io abbia avuto, that I may have had. Ch'io avessi avuto, that I had had. Avrete, will you have? Avere also means to receive, to get, as: Avrb del da- naro, I shall get some money.
The negative, interrogative and negative-interrogative forms differ but slightly from the English, in so far as the negative particle nan is always placed immediately before the verb. The learner may compare: Io aveva, I had. Io nan aveva, I had not. This mode of address is quite peculiar to the Italian language.
Instead of Ella the accus. Lei may be used as nom. Vossignoria ha, your Lordship has. Vossignoria ; will you have? Ella left out , what do you want? In mercantile style and in familiar conversation with foreigners the second person plural is used, as in English and French, as: The second person singular thou is much more frequently employed than in English. It is used by relations and in- timate friends, and whenever employed, marks a certain degree of intimacy. La bdrsa, the purse also exchange. KLU the busine88 - la visita, the visit.
The auxiliary verb Av6re. Io ho un amico. Tu avevi una casa. Egli ebbe due visite. Avra Ella domani un nuovo libro? Un abile maestro avra molti scolari. Ha Ella veduto quell' that amabile fanciullo? Quest o infelice aveva perduto molto danaro. Chi e il padre del ragazzo? II signore che whom Ella ha veduto ieri da mio cugino. Questi signori avevano una grande sostanza. Avevamo la for tuna di to avere dei vicini molto gentili. Avrei mangiato la minestra, se if avessi avuto fame. Noi avremmo bevuto la birra, se aves- simo avuto sete.
Che eosa hai dato al sarto? Del danaro per gli abiti di mio fratello. Abbia la gentilezza di dirmi to tell me dove abita il signor Verdi? Had you any friends? Yes, we had many friends. Shall you Ella have some money? They would have horses and carriages. This evening I shall have a visit from my cousin. I have written four letters. You have good parents. These children will have ink and pens.
He would have an inkstand. They would have some paper, pencils, and pens. What have you had? Had you Ella any enemies? The children are hungry and thirsty. This poor man has lost his la sua fortune. You would have had useful books. Yesterday we have eaten bread and fruit. This diligent pupil had written many translations.
Thou wilt have thy money to-morrow. He had had unfor- tunate friends. The pupil's writing-book had ten sheets. We had pass, rem. The tailor has brought the clothes for Charles and William. You had the visit of the count yesterday. We shall have seen the garden of the prince. This praiseworthy pupil has had a great fortune. He says dice that you have lost the spectacles. We have had a translation. You had pass, rem. Let us have patience! He had written a book on the duties of men. Chi ha avuto del danaro? II mercante ha avuto molto danaro. Chi aveva scritto la lettera? Che cosa avra la signora Ma- tilde?
Abbia la gentilezza di dirmi dove e il teatro. Che cosa avevate mangiato dal vicino? Avrebbe Lei forse perhaps il mio libro, signora! Che cosa avresti fatto done , se tu avessi avato del de- naro? No, non abbiamo fame, ma abbiamo sete. Carlo aveva scritto la lettera. Ecco Ik il teatro. Avevamo mangiato delle pere. I mercanti hanno molti affari.
Avrei comprato carrozza e ca- valli. No, signora, non ho paura. Io sdno, I am. Ella e, you are. Io ira, I was. Ella era, you were. Io fui, I was. Ella fu, you were. I have his book. The possessive adjective Suo, Sua, answering to the polite mode Ella, is here written with a capital letter. This practice, however, is not universal in Italian.
Io sard, I shall be. Ella sarebbe, you would be. Io sono stato, -a, I have been, noi alamo stati, -e, we have been.