Operation Reindeer and Battle of Cassinga. South West Africa Namibia. Battle of Cuito Cuanavale. Operation Hooper and Operation Packer. A complete brigade of tanks We used helicopters to send in tank specialists, artillerymen, and experts in repairing military technology who could press into service the tremendous amount of Angolan technology and equipment that was there. Portuguese Airpower in Counterinsurgency, — To Be Born a Nation. United States Relations with South Africa: Peter Lang Publishing, Incorporated. The Namibian War of Independence, Diplomatic, Economic and Military Campaigns.
The Diplomacy of Liberation: A History of Opposition in Zambia. Soviet Strategy in Southern Africa: Proxy Warfare in International Politics. Terrorism, the North Korean connection. National Liberation in Postcolonial Southern Africa: The Devils Are Among Us: The War for Namibia. Imagery and Ideology in U. Policy Toward Libya — University of Pittsburgh Press.
African Socialism in Postcolonial Tanzania: Between the Village and the World. United States Institute of Peace Press. The Role of the United Nations. Ex-Combatants and the Post-Conflict State: The Cuban intervention in Angola. Retrieved 15 January The road to Namibia — Britannica Online Encyclopedia".
Airpower in small wars: University Press of Kansas. Cuba in the Angolan Civil War illustrated ed. Archived from the original PDF on 10 November Retrieved 4 January Warfare in Africa since A Military History of Africa. The Militarisation of South Africa. A Modern Military History. Responding to Low-Intensity Conflict Challenges. Recovery from Armed Conflict in Developing Countries: An Economic and Political Analysis.
UN Peacekeeping in Action: Memories of a Renegade Reporter. Penguin Random House South Africa. Africa in World Politics: South Africa's 'Border War': Contested Narratives and Conflicting Memories. Swapo's Struggle for Namibia, — War by Other Means. International Law from Below: Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez, and Decolonization.
South Africa and the World: The Foreign Policy of Apartheid. University Press of Kentucky. Argument and Change in World Politics: Ethics, Decolonization, and Humanitarian Intervention. The Inevitable Pipeline Into Exile. Botswana's Role in the Namibian Liberation Struggle. The Rise and Fall of the White Entente, — Soviet Policy Towards South Africa. A Post Nuclear Challenge. University Press of the Pacific. Soviet Union and Revolutionary Warfare: Principles, Practices, and Regional Comparisons.
Prospects of Soviet Power in the s.
- South African Border War!
- .
- Lilies.
- Ubuntu Linux Toolbox: 1000+ Commands for Power Users!
- Land reform in Zimbabwe - Wikipedia.
- .
- ?
From Fledgling to Eagle: The International Court of Justice: A Military History of South Africa: Modern African Wars 3: Archived from the original on 16 July Retrieved 15 July Landmines in Southern Africa. The Question of Namibia.
- The Art of Trading Lives.
- .
- The Contract;
- .
- History of Namibia - Wikipedia;
A History of Resistance in Namibia. Namibia and Southern Africa: Regional Dynamics of Decolonization, Where the Bushwar Began. Promedia Publications Pty Ltd. Days of the Generals.
Navigation menu
In search of enemies. Managing Ethnic Conflict in Africa: Pressures and Incentives for Cooperation. The Origins of the Angolan Civil War: Foreign Intervention and Domestic Political Conflict, The University of North Carolina Press. Apartheid Power in Southern Africa. Incrementalism, Crisis and Change. Cuba in the world. To Make a World Safe for Revolution: South Africa Into Angola Third ed. Just Done Productions Publishing. The apartheid state and the politics of the National Party, - Ravan Press Pty Ltd.
Archived from the original PDF on 9 March Communism in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. The Oxford Handbook of the History of Nationalism. Sweden and National Liberation in Southern Africa: Solidarity and assistance, — South African Institute of Race Relations. Archived from the original PDF on 18 July Retrieved 18 July Archived from the original PDF on 20 July Retrieved 19 July Lynne Rienner Publishers, Incorporated.
A documentary account of the Namibian spy drama. Iron Fist From The Sea: South Africa's Seaborne Raiders Archived from the original PDF on 20 January Retrieved 7 January South Africa into Angola. Warfare and Tracking in Africa, — The sacred trust of civilization, ideal and reality. War Termination as a Civil-Military Bargain: Prisoners of a Dream: The South African Mirage. Prince George Street Press. Dwyer, Philip; Ryan, Lyndall, eds. Massacre, Mass Killing and Atrocity throughout History. Cold War in Southern Africa: White Power, Black Liberation. The Defence of White Power: South African Foreign Policy under Pressure.
The Road to Democracy in South Africa: University of South Africa Press. Retrieved 18 February South Africa's Border War — South Africa's Foreign Policy: The Search for Status and Security, E; Abegunrin, Olayiwola Andrew Young and Beyond. University of Nairobi Press. Dissidence and Rebellion in Southern Africa. Foreign Intervention in Africa: From the Cold War to the War on Terror.
The Destruction of a Nation: State Security in South Africa: Civil-military Relations Under P. State-sponsored Ethnic Violence in Kenya. Archived from the original on 13 March Retrieved 20 September Anti-Communist Guerrillas in the Third World. World Communism at the Crossroads: Military Ascendancy, Political Economy. Springer Science and Business Media. The Hot "Cold War": The New York Times. A Study of Crisis. University of Michigan Press. Project Get Out And Walk: Assisted Aircrew Escape Systems Since — a comprehensive, illustrated history of their development and use.
Archived from the original on 6 August Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. United States Institute of Peace. South-South Cooperation and Transfer of Knowledge, — University of Wisconsin Press. Retrieved 2 August Modern Insurgencies and Counter-Insurgencies: Guerrillas and their Opponents since Striking Inside Angola with 32 Battalion.
Laird, Robbin; Hoffmann, Erik, eds. Soviet Foreign Policy in a Changing World. South African Armour of the Border War — Retrieved 7 August Wars in the Third World Since Archived from the original on 12 December Retrieved 25 January Old Treacheries and New Deceits. Battle on the Lomba The Road to Cuito Cuanavale: Soviet Soldiers' Accounts of the Angolan War. Jacana Media Pty Ltd. The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 23 March Retrieved 22 March South African Journal of Military Studies.
History of Namibia
Archived from the original on 27 January From Soweto to Cuito Cuanavale: Archived from the original pdf on 23 March Retrieved 27 February Retrieved 18 March A few days later, the pro-Mugabe Zimbabwe National Liberation War Veterans Association ZNLWVA organised several people including but not limited to war veterans; many of them were their children and grandchildren to march on white-owned farmlands, initially with drums, song and dance.
The predominantly white farm owners were forced off their lands along with their workers, who were typically of regional descent. This was often done violently and without compensation. In this first wave of farm invasions, a total of , square kilometres of land had been seized. Several million black farm workers were excluded from the redistribution, leaving them without employment. According to Human Rights Watch , by the War Veterans Association had "killed white farm owners in the course of occupying commercial farms" on at least seven occasions, in addition to "several tens of [black] farm workers".
More commonly, violence was directed against farmworkers, who were often assaulted and killed by the war veterans and their supporters. Officially the land was divided into small-holder production, so called A1 schemes and commercial farms, called A2 schemes. There is however much overlap between the two categories. The violent takeover of Alamein Farm by retired Army General Solomon Mujuru sparked the first legal action against one of Robert Mugabe's inner circle.
On 10 June , a spokesperson for the British embassy, Sophie Honey, said: The Minister for Lands, Land Reform and Resettlement, John Nkomo, had declared five days earlier that all land, from crop fields to wildlife conservancies, would soon become state property. Farmland deeds would be replaced with year leases, while leases for wildlife conservancies would be limited to 25 years. Parliament, dominated by Zanu-PF , passed a constitutional amendment, signed into law on 12 September , that nationalised farmland acquired through the "Fast Track" process and deprived original landowners of the right to challenge in court the government's decision to expropriate their land.
South African Border War - Wikipedia
In January , Agriculture Minister Joseph Made said Zimbabwe was considering legislation that would compel commercial banks to finance black peasants who had been allocated formerly white-owned farmland in the land reforms. Made warned that banks failing to lend a substantial portion of their income to these farmers would have their licenses withdrawn. The newly resettled peasants had largely failed to secure loans from commercial banks because they did not have title over the land on which they were resettled, and thus could not use it as collateral.
With no security of tenure on the farms, banks have been reluctant to extend loans to the new farmers, many of whom do not have much experience in commercial farming, nor assets to provide alternative collateral for any borrowed money.
Conflicting reports emerged regarding the effects of Mugabe's land reform programme. In February , the African National Congress media liaison department reported that Mugabe had given himself 15 farms, while Simon Muzenda received Cabinet ministers held farms among them, sitting ZANU-PF parliamentarians , and the 2, war veterans only two.
Another 4, landless peasants were allocated three. Despite the claims by critics of the land reform only benefiting government bureaucrats, only 4. Masvingo is however a part of the country with relatively poor farming land, and it is possible more farms went to "cell-phone farmers" in other parts of the country, according to the study. Before , land-owning farmers had large tracts of land and used economies of scale to raise capital, borrow money when necessary, and purchase modern mechanised farm equipment to increase productivity on their land.
Because the primary beneficiaries of the land reform were members of the Government and their families, despite the fact that most had no experience in running a farm, the drop in total farm output has been tremendous and has even produced starvation and famine, according to aid agencies. Whereas Zimbabwe was the world's sixth-largest producer of tobacco in , [55] in it produced less than a third the amount produced in Crops for export such as tobacco, coffee and tea have suffered the most under the land reform.
Land reform caused a collapse in Zimbabwe's tobacco crop, its main agricultural export. In , Zimbabwe was the world's sixth-largest producer of tobacco, behind only China, Brazil, India, the United States and Indonesia. In , the contract system was introduced into Zimbabwe.
International tobacco companies contracted with small-scale subsistence farmers to buy their crop. In return, the farmers received agricultural products such as seeds and fertiliser, as well as advice and supervision. Critics of the land reforms have contended that they have had a serious detrimental effect on the Zimbabwean economy. The rebound in Zimbabwean GDP following dollarisation is attributable to loans and foreign aid obtained by pledging the country's vast natural resources—including diamonds, gold, and platinum—to foreign powers.
In response to what was described as the "fast-track land reform" in Zimbabwe, the United States government put the Zimbabwean government on a credit freeze in through the Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of specifically Section 4C titled Multilateral Financing Restriction , [74] which collapsed the trade surplus in From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Internal Settlement and Lancaster House Agreement. Independence — Twenty Years On. Mugabe and the Politics of Security in Zimbabwe. Montreal, Quebec and Kingston, Ontario: Retrieved 14 June Area Handbook for Southern Rhodesia ed.
Karanga Indigenous Religion in Zimbabwe: Retrieved 20 November Wageningen University and Research Centre. Archived from the original on 21 March Retrieved 27 September Narratives of Rhodesian Guerrillas. Centre for International Development. Archived from the original PDF on 7 March Retrieved 4 July Guerrilla Veterans in Post-War Zimbabwe: Symbolic and Violent Politics, Archived from the original on 1 May Retrieved 18 May South Africa's Destabilization of Zimbabwe, Darnolf, Staffan; Laakso, Liisa, eds.
Twenty Years of Independence in Zimbabwe: From Liberation to Authoritarianism.
Land reform in Zimbabwe
Pioneers, settlers, aliens, exiles: Altered States, Ordinary Miracles. Archived from the original PDF on 8 July Retrieved 8 July Archived from the original on 11 August Retrieved 6 June Race, Landscape, and the Problem of Belonging.
In , paramilitaries killed their first white farmer in Virginia, Dave Stevens. More typically, armed groups surrounded farmhouses and harassed their occupants meanwhile assaulting and often killing black farm workers. Power, Plunder and the Struggle for Zimbabwe. Archived from the original on 5 May Archived from the original on 14 September Archived from the original on 12 November Retrieved 6 May Injustice and Political Reconciliation 1 July ed.
Institute for Justice and Reconciliation. Zimbabwe's land reform ten years on: Archived from the original on 14 June Retrieved 18 June Retrieved 12 August Land reform in Zimbabwe". Florida Journal of International Law. Faced with famine, Robert Mugabe orders farmers to stop growing food". White Farmers in Rhodesia, — A History of the Marandellas District. Issues in the Global Tobacco Economy.