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Berlin, is vitiated only by the then common assumption that papyrus implies the roll and parchment the codex. All these discussions, even to a large extent that of Schubart, were written before the full effect of the Egyptian discoveries had been appreciated, and these set the sources the authors quoted in a different light. A notable attempt to re-assess the question against the background of these discoveries is that of H.

Sanders, The Beginnings of the Modern Book: Sir Eric Turner's The Typologv of the Early Codex, , though a mine of information concerning all physical aspects of the codex, explicitly cf. The latest treatment, by Guglielmo Cavallo in his composite [[03]] volume, Libri, Editori e pubblico nel Mondo antico, , is considered in Section 12 below. It should be added that the task of assembling the data on texts other than Christian has been immeasurably lightened by the publication of Roger A.

In the predecessor of the present work the evidence was based on Pack-1; here it has been revised with the aid of Pack-2 and brought up to date with the aid of other bibliographies. This introductory section may suitably close with a warning. An overwhelming proportion of the evidence comes from Egypt , and even then not from the centre [center] of literary and bibliographical studies, Alexandria , but from various provincial towns and villages. It is also reassuring that the statistics on pp. But it must be borne in mind that apart from a few isolated discoveries, the bulk of the additions come from the same sources as before, and indeed most of the additional Oxyrhynchus material was actually excavated even before the publication of Pack.

A very similar warning is given by Schubart, Das Buch First, the sources of information. Until recently no similar study has been devoted to the history of parchment, but now a full-scale scientific and technical investigation is available in R.

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One of Johnson's principal services is to collect and elucidate the confused and partly contradictory accounts of the 'invention' of parchment at Pergamum in the second century B. The 'invention' as such is baseless, since leather and parchment were certainly in common use in Western Asia much earlier, and Johnson also dismisses as absurd the statement that through jealousy of the growing Pergamene library the Ptolemies placed an embargo on the export of papyrus to Pergamum how could they in fact have taken such a step while maintaining supplies to the rest of the Mediterranean world?

It was during the same period that Pergamene scholars introduced the new material to Rome , where no doubt the shortage of papyrus was no less keenly felt. To explain the eventual supersession of papyrus by parchment a number of reasons have been put forward, and although most of them have little bearing on the origin and development of the codex, they may be briefly considered here.

The comparative qualities of papyrus and parchment have often been compared, usually to the disadvantage of the former. Many instances of the long life of writings on papyrus could be quoted, but this is no longer necessary, since the myth that papyrus is not a durable material has at last been authoritatively and, one would hope, finally refuted by Lewis op.

At the same time Lewis finds no difficulty in dispelling another popular delusion, namely that papyrus was essentially a fragile and brittle material. Wieacker's claim that parchment was preferred for the codex because papyrus was too brittle to fold is totally without foundation. The great difficulty is that we have no comparative figures for the cost of papyrus and parchment during the same period of time. Of the few certain prices of papyrus rolls collected by Lewis op. Conversely, the only certain price recorded for parchment is that given in Diocletian's Maximum Price Edict of C.

Why, and when, parchment replaced papyrus is a complex question detailed discussion of which is outside the scope of this book. The manufacture of papyrus in Egypt continued right up to the twelfth century C. As already mentioned, parchment had the advantage over papyrus in that it could be manufactured virtually anywhere. At first sight this advantage would seem to be so overwhelming that one is inclined to pose the question, not in the form 'Why did parchment replace papyrus? Whereas the manufacture of papyrus, like that of paper, is basically a simple and straightforward process, and the technical skills necessary had in any case been elaborated by the Egyptians over thousands of years, the production of parchment poses very different problems, the nature of which can best be illustrated by the following quotations from R.

Reed, Ancient Skins, Parchments and Leathers: It is perhaps the extraordinarily high durability of the product, produced by so simple a method, which has prevented most people from [[09]] suspecting that many subtle points are involved The essence of the parchment process, which subjects the system of pelt to the simultaneous action of stretching and drying, is to bring about peculiar changes quite different from those applying when making leather.

In other words, the pelt fibres are fixed in a stretched condition so that they cannot revert to their original relaxed state pp. Where the medieval parchment makers were greatly superior to their modern counterparts was in the control and modification of the ground substance in the pelt, before the latter was stretched and dried The bases of many different effects need to be provided for simultaneously, in one and the same operation.

The properties required in the final parchment must be catered for at the wet pelt stage, for due to the peculiar nature of the parchment process, once the system has been dried, any after treatments to modify the material produced are greatly restricted. This method, which follows those used in medieval times for making parchment of the highest quality, is preferable for it allows the grain surface of the drying pelt to be "slicked" and freed from residual fine hairs whilst stretched upon the frame.

At the same time, any processes for cleaning and smoothing the flesh side, or for controlling the thickness of the final parchment may be undertaken by working the flesh side with sharp knives which are semi-lunar in form. To carry out such manual operations on wet stretched pelt demands great skill, speed of working, and concentrated physical effort.

• Merlins secret wish.
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• .

Enough has been said to suggest that behind the apparently simple instructions contained in the early medieval recipes there is a wealth of complex process detail which we are still far from understanding. Hence it remains true that parchment-making is perhaps more of an art than a science. This brief survey will, it is hoped, be sufficient to show that the transition from papyrus to parchment was of an entirely different character from, and quite unconnected with, the transition from roll to codex, to which we will now turn.

LSJ and Pollux, Onomast. Fouad 74 of the fourth century C. Bell and Flinders Petrie, Ancient Egypt 3 For photographs of three of them see Petrie, Objects of Daily Life, pl. One is reproduced here as Plate I. Nihil enim legit quod non excerperet; dicere etiam solebat nullum esse librum tam malum ut non aliqua parte prodesset. Super hanc liber legebatur adnotabatur, et quidem cursim. Referebat ipse potuisse se, cum procuraret in Hispania, vendere hos commentarios Larcio Licino quadringentis milibus nummum; et tunc aliquanto pauciores erant.

After this, as if it had been a new day, he studied till supper-time, when a book was again read liber legebatur to him, which he would take down running notes upon adnotabatur. He used himself to tell us that when he was comptroller of the revenue in Spain, he could have sold these manuscripts to Largius Licinus for four hundred thousand sesterces, and then there were not so many of them. The correct designation in Latin for a plurality of tablets or for multi-leaved tablets was codex, whether the material used was wood, as was usual or, e.

The second passage, on which much ink has been spilt to little profit, is the statement by the elder Pliny that Cicero had reported a copy of the Iliad on parchment which could be enclosed in a [[14]] nut in nuce inclusam Iliadem Homeri carmen in membrana tradit Cicero. This is quoted by Pliny N. It has often been denounced as an absurdity. He then attempts to rationalize the story by suggesting that in nuce, instead of meaning 'in a nut-shell,' could also mean 'in boards of nut-wood,' i.

Membrana in Pauly-Wissowa, RE , takes much the same line, suggesting a box of nut-wood. However, as has been justly pointed out, if in nuce does not mean 'in a nut-shell,' the whole story loses its point. Of course, what Cicero meant [e. See further Bagnall lectures.

The trouble is that none of the scholars who have commented on this passage have investigated the subject of microscopic writing, and therefore have no conception of what can be achieved by ingenuity and application. To take but a single example, Harley MS. If Peter Bales could put the entire Bible into a walnut-shell in the sixteenth century C. The attention which has been paid to this trifling anecdote demonstrates only one thing -- the extraordinary poverty of our sources of information.

The Latin Writing Tablets 40ff]. It would seem that it was the Romans, rather than the Greeks, who developed the writing tablet to a size where it could accommodate lengthy accounts they distinguished, as the Greeks did not, between the large tablet and the pugillares that could be held in a closed hand. Certainly it was the Romans who took the decisive next step, that of replacing the wooden tablet by a lighter, thinner and more pliable material [[including very thin wood, as at Vindolanda]].

We have seen that, according to our literary evidence, the Romans may have been made familiar with parchment as a writing material before the middle of the second century B. But if, as also our sources suggest, it was intended as a substitute for papyrus, it would probably have been used, like papyrus, in roll form. Another passage which has often been quoted in this connection is Catullus In the context, Cicero wonders if his own letters are being thus reused.

One further passage which may be relevant for the writing practices of Republican Rome occurs in Suetonius, Divus Julius Epistulae quoque eius ad Senatum extant, quas primum videtur ad paginas et formam memorialis libelli convertisse, cum antea consoles et duces non nisi transversa charta scriptas mitterent. The first problem is to determine the form of writing used by Caesar's predecessors, from which his innovation constituted a departure. Suetonius describes these earlier dispatches as 'transversa charta scriptas.

It has [[19]] been objected that although such a manner of writing is found occasionally in Ptolemaic papyri of the third century B. Why such unbound sheets would be inscribed against the fibers is another matter. However, by far the greatest source of confusion has been the employment by modern palaeographers of the convenient term 'palimpsests' or its factitious Latin equivalent 'libri rescripti' to denote re-written parchment manuscripts, with the result that the word 'palimpsest' has become inextricably linked with the use of parchment, in defiance of all the ancient evidence.

Turner, The Terms Recto and Verso: Positis capillis clearly refers to the depilation of the skin in the process of parchment making. Bicolor is more difficult to interpret, but probably refers to the difference in color between the flesh-side of parchment and the hair-side, which is often markedly [[21]] yellower. The passage may thus be taken to indicate that the membranae, at this period if not earlier, were parchment note-books in codex form.

The final proof is provided by Quintilian circ. The latter, however, although of assistance to the eye, delays the hand and interrupts the stream of thought owing to the frequency with which the pen has to be supplied with ink 32 But whichever is employed, blank pages tabellae must be left in which one is free to make additions at will. With Quintilian we have reached a stage in the history of the codex when it is more than a tablet but still less than a book. As was mentioned at the beginning of this section, all the evidence points to the parchment note-book having been a Roman and not a Greek invention.

This is neatly confirmed by the only Greek writer of the first century C. In 2 Timothy 4. Apart from Paul [[quotes again? In his De Compositione Medicamentorum he discusses a preparation alleged to be useful in arresting the spread of baldness and mentions that his friend Claudianus himself a celebrated doctor had come across it in a parchment note-book which he had acquired after the owner's death. By itself the parchment note-book does not take us very far. In the first two centuries of the Empire polite society [[seems to have]] acknowledged one form and one form only for the [[literary]] book -- the roll.

We have noticed p. Whether, however, we might be of some help, on the present occasion, than you are able to ascertain, we deign to rewrite. Know that without wordy letters to those most familiar to us, not only laity but even bishops, is how this is written, to those we only write so that they also might quickly write and using papyrus which is appropriate for them to read, lest if this habit of ours is misunderstood, it is deemed a wrong to you.

Ad honorabilem fratrem nostrum Maximum litteras dedimus, credentes eum gratanter eas suscepturum: Sciat sane prolixas epistolas ad familiarissimos nostros, non solum laicos, verum etiam episcopos, sic quomodo ista scripta est, ad eos scribere nos solere, ut et cito scribantur, et charta teneatur commodius cum leguntur, ne forte istum morem nostrum nesciens, factam sibi arbitretur injuriam.

Nos scribere non solere, ut et cito scribantur, et certa teneantur. The Augustine passage seems only to indicate that papyrus is being used [not parchment? See also Evan T. Ascher, 'An Epitome of Livy in Martial's day? One other question which these epigrams raise admits of no answer. The gifts which are the subject of the Apophoreta are divided into those intended for the rich and those intended for the poor, and the objects are correspondingly expensive or cheap.

The epigrams are arranged in pairs; in each pair, as Martial himself explains It is in any case highly probable that the order in this book is disturbed; and it follows that the epigrams cannot be used in the profitless debate see p. Against this silence we can perhaps set the earliest extant fragment of a parchment codex in Latin — the anonymous fragment of a historical work, christened De bellis Macedonicis, found at Oxyrhynchus though not necessarily of Egyptian origin , which has been convincingly attributed, on the ground both of its letter forms and its spelling to a date not far from C.

Turner, The Typologv of the early Codex, p. And if we ask why, an obvious answer lies in the fact that at this time, and throughout the second century, Greek influence in Roman cultural life was perhaps more marked than at any other period; and that in consequence an invention of the practical Latin genius in the field of literature where convention, we may suspect, governed the form in which a book appeared no less strictly than its composition would have been at a discount.

An additional, or alternative, reason may have been the technical difficulties, discussed in Section 2, of manufacturing parchment on a scale large enough to enable it to provide a viable alternative to papyrus. Before we leave Martial, there is one final point which deserves consideration. In the poems we have discussed the codex form is so inseparably linked with the use of parchment that scholars have generally regarded it as axiomatic that the parchment codex preceded, and indeed provided the model, for the papyrus codex.

Today this is by no means so certain. At present the question is wide open. The evidence of the classical jurists is thus especially welcome, the more so since they would be expected to take account of general social attitudes rather than reflect the idiosyncracies of individual authors. Scott -- online -- who struggles with the second sentence and takes it to refer to bindings: Gaius Cassius says that where books are bequeathed, the bindings are also included" ; for the process by which the material from Ulpian was preserved, see http: In the clause quod si in codicibus sint [if they are in codices] etc.

In listing the various forms of writings of which the inclusion in the term libri is, for Ulpian, in doubt, he appears to divide them into two classes, the second introduced by the words vel etiam [or even], suggesting an even greater degree of dubiety than in the case of those previously mentioned.

On this basis the two classes of disputed materials are as follows: The question now arises whether the term codices membranei denotes, or includes, the parchment notebook which we have already investigated [Parsons review says yes -- "Ulpian's first group could comprise, or at least include, notebooks"]. The repeated association of the parchment notebook with the waxed tablet from which it originated leaves no doubt [[!! It follows, therefore, that his Group 1 represents papyrus and parchment codices in our sense of the term. It will be seen that in order to decide whether materials in both these classes are to be accepted as libri , Ulpian quotes an opinion of the first century jurisconsult Gaius Cassius which has already been discussed on p.

It is true [[32]] that Cassius only specifically mentions membranae. Given the date at which Cassius was writing this must [[!! Ulpian would have argued that since Cassius says et membranae, 'even membranae' the same must apply consequenter to all the analogous forms cetera in his Group 2, and, a fortiori, to his Group 1. Indeed his contemporary and rival in the law, Paulus , who succeeded him as Praetorian Prefect after his murder in , goes further and defines the book in such a way that the codex is at last admitted on terms of equality with the roll if we may accept the attribution of the Sententiae, or at any rate of this quotation, to him: When books libris are bequeathed, volumes of papyrus chartae volumina , or of parchment vel membranae and wood-slabs et philyrae are included, and codices, as well codices quoque.

By the designagtion "books" librorum not merely volumes of papyrus volumina chartarum , but also any kind of writing which is contained in anything is understood. The book is now defined, and well defined, as a self-contained unit, independent of material or format. With this judgment the codex has arrived; but it has still to become fashionable. This confirms the verdict of the preceding section, namely that the development attested by Martial was not an immediate success, and that the codex emerged as an acceptable form only after a long period of gestation.

Archi, IVRA 12 Wieacker's objections to the text of the Ulpian quotation appear to be two: There is, of course, no doubt that the final clause of the Ulpian quotation si non adversetur voluntas testatoris [ if the intention of the testator was not otherwise] is a later addition, since it runs counter to Ulpian's own line of reasoning, which is a typical interpretation of terms without regard to the probable wishes of the testator [[but see elsewhere in this same section, regarding "libraries" and intentions]].

It would seem, therefore, that Wieacker rejects the entire passage as unauthentic. This is, of course something of a petitio principii [minor point] , since Wieacker has to prove not merely that the quotation suits conditions about C. Under the designation of "books" all volumes are included, whether they are made of papyrus, parchment, or any other material whatsoever; even if they are written on bark as is sometimes done , or upon any kind of prepared skins, they come under the same appellation.

If, however, the books are bound in leather, or papyrus, or ivory, or any other substance, or are composed of wax tablets, will they be considered to be due? Gaius Cassius says that where books are bequeathed, the bindings are also included. Hence, it follows that everything relating to them will be due if the intention of the testator was not otherwise. Cassius adopts the same opinion, but he holds that parchment covers that are written upon membranas quae scriptae sint are included. He adds, afterwards, that neither book-cases, writing desks armaria neque scrinia , nor other furniture in which books are kept constitute part of the legacy.

But what if anyone should bequeath sheets of papyrus chartas legaverit puras. In this case neither parchments Membranae , nor any other materials used for writing, nor books which have been commenced nec coepti scribi libri will be included. Quod tamen Cassius de membranis puris scripsit, verum est: Quid ergo, si quis chartas legaverit puras? Membranae non continebuntur neque ceterae ad scribendum materiae, sed nec coepti scribi libri.

Chartis legatis neque papyrum ad chartas paratum neque chartae nondum perfectae continebuntur. If, however, a warehouse should be used for the storage of the books, the contrary opinion must be held. This, however, is false, for everything in the house by means of which the owner may be better provided and rendered more comfortable will be included. No one doubts that the furniture is something which contributes to the convenience of the head of a household.

He should act in the same manner with reference to books which it is improper to read for instance, those treating of magic and similar subjects ; all of these, however, should be immediately destroyed. The following are embraced in bequests of household goods, namely: Some authorities very properly hold that wardrobes and chests of drawers, if intended for the storage of clothes or books, should not be classed as household goods, because the articles for which they are designed are not included in that category.

The answer was that the law should not be employed to cause annoyance, and that terms ought not to be captiously construed, but that it was proper to consider with what intention the words were uttered; for, in accordance with this principle, if anyone was desirous of studying some branch of knowledge, he might state that he had an interest in such and such books being produced for his benefit, because if they were produced, after he had read them he would become a more learned and a better man.

Where anyone bequeaths a promissory note, it is understood that he had in mind not only the tablets upon which it is written, but also the rights of action, the proof of which is contained in the tablets. For it is clear that we use the same "note" instead of the said rights of action; so when the note is sold, we understand that the claim was also disposed of.

Moreover, where anyone bequeaths a claim, he is understood to have bequeathed what can be recovered by an action at law. The father had kept, in the name of one of his sons, an account book of debts, and it was afterwards decided and held that what remained in said book in the name of his son was due to the latter; but not what had been already collected and placed by his father among the assets of his estate.

The question arose whether the son was entitled, as a preferred legacy, to the loans which he himself had made. The answer was that he could only make a choice of those which were in the account-book in kalendario of the testator at the time he executed his will. The answer was that the meaning of the words will also permit this extension. It was also asked, in the same case, certain notes having been found in the account-book of the testator, he being in the habit of loaning money in his native city of Gades, or in the environs thereof, and having left the property which he had in said city.

Africanus, Questions, Book VI. Where a testator appointed his son and his grandson his heirs, and gave to his grandson under a trust certain lands, and whatever might be on them at the time of his death "with the exception of his account book," and, when he died, a sum of money was found in his chest in which the notes and bonds of his debtors were kept, it was held by several authorities to be hardly probable that the testator had the said money in his mind when he created the trust. I go still further, and hold that if the money had been collected and again invested in a similar manner, the change of obligations would neither annul or diminish the effect of the trust, so that if the same money was intended to be placed in the account book, that is to say for the purpose of making new loans, it would still be payable to the beneficiary under the terms of the trust.

A testatrix left to her grandson the lands which she possessed in a certain district, as they were equipped, together with the wine, grain, and a book of accounts;. The testator also left the claims in his account-book, and the money which was on said land. The question arose whether he would be compelled to surrender to the heirs the books in which the accounts were kept, as well as any sums remaining in his hands as shown by the entries of receipts and expenditures. He also says, "If I lend you a blank book and you cause your debtor to write therein a note to secure you, and I then erase this; if I lent the book to you in order that you might be secured, I am liable to you in a counter action.

Hic chirographa debitorum et pecuniam, cum esset profecturus in urbem, in lateralibus condidit et chirographis exactis quam pecunia erogata reversus in patriam post biennium alia chirographa praediorum, quae postea comparaverat, et pecuniam in lateralia condidit. Quaesitum est, an ea tantum videatur nomina ei legasse, quae postea reversus in hisdem [isdem] lateralibus condidit. Respondit secundum ea quae proponerentur non deberi quae mortis tempore in his lateralibus essent et membranis manu eius scriptis continerentur.

Idem quaesiit, an, cum emptiones praediorum in hisdem [isdem] lateralibus condiderat, praedia quoque legato cedant. Respondit non quidem manifeste apparere, quid de praediis sensisset, verum si ea mente emptiones ibi haberet, ut his legatariae datis proprietas praediorum praestaretur, posse defendi praedia quoque deberi. And while, in former times, it was scarcely possible for those who preceded you to read the Imperial Constitutions in the course of four years, you may, now, from the very beginning, proceed to do so; being found worthy of such honor and happiness that both the beginning and the end of your instruction in the laws issue from the mouth of your Sovereign.

But if you demand your books or parchments from Titius, and are not ready to pay the expense of the writing, Titius can defend himself by the exception on the ground of fraud; at all events, he can do so if he obtained possession of the said papyrus or parchments in good faith. In the preceding sections the literary evidence for the emergence of the codex form has been examined. We now turn to the evidence of the actual manuscripts which have survived from this period.

But before we do so, a few words of caution must be given. An overwhelming proportion of these manuscripts come from Egypt , and because of the chance nature of discoveries we cannot be certain either that they are typical of Egypt as a whole, or, if this is conceded, that what was typical of Egypt was necessarily typical of the Graeco-Roman world as a whole.

The former of these points can be the more readily answered. Apart from the Delta and Alexandria, discoveries have been made in almost every region of Egypt, and serious though the absence of Alexandria is, it is probable that many of the literary papyri found at Oxyrhynchus, where wealthy Alexandrians possessed country estates, either were written in Alexandria, or, if local copies, would have reflected current fashions in the capital.

The second question is much less easy to answer. However, the ease of travel throughout the Roman world, the continual movements of officials, merchants and others, and, above all, the [[virtually]] unchallenged reputation of Alexandria in matters of bibliography, all suggest that there is unlikely to have been any great differences in the construction of books between Egypt and the rest of the Empire. There are indeed other and more serious reservations to be made in the assessment of the Egyptian evidence.

The dating of literary papyri is far from being an exact science, and estimates of date may vary by a century or more. All we can hope for is that the inevitable errors in dating will, at least to some extent, [[36]] cancel each other out. A further difficulty is the distribution over time. Relatively abundant during the first three centuries, the output of literary papyri shows a dramatic falling-off after C. Testi lettereri greci in Aegyptus 51 ; 52 ; 53 ; 54 ; 55 ; 57 I ; 58 ; and 60 Turner, The Typology of the early Codex, , which covers see p.

It should be made clear that except in a few cases the figures are based on the estimates of date given by the original editors. The employment of dates spanning two centuries, e. This was not, of course, the case but merely reflects the predilection of editors for assigning a text to a particular century.

There is indeed a method whereby this disadvantage can be eliminated. Willis in A Census of the Literary Papyri from Egypt Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 9 divides the texts spanning two centuries equally between the centuries concerned, presumably on the grounds that of all the texts dated by their editors, e. This expedient has not been adopted here, since it involves a re-interpretation of the judgments of the original editors. Fortunately the principal points which emerge from the survey remain substantially the same whichever procedure is followed.

The figures below cover all Greek but not Latin literary and scientific writings, Christian literature excepted; they omit items [[37]] which are, or appear to be , school exercises, single sheets, mathematical tables -- anything in short which is clearly not a [[literary]] book. It should be added that since we are here concerned with format, i. The unit in these statistics is the book, i. However, where a roll has been re-used by having a different literary work written on the verso, the texts on recto and verso are each counted as one unit, since the scribe of the verso text was presumably satisfied with the roll format and only used a discarded roll instead of a new one for reasons of economy.

The following figures do not include "Christian" stuff. From these figures it is clear that the codex scarcely counted for Greek literature before about C. Nevertheless its representation is not, as has sometimes been suggested, entirely negligible. The significance of these second-century codices for the origins and growth of the codex form in non-Christian literature will be discussed in Section For the present, however, the fact remains that it was only in the course of the third century that the codex obtained a significant share of book-production and it was not until about C.

Turner, The Typology of the Early Codex , pp. Van Haelst's verdict of 'probablement Juif' is presumably based on the fact that it is a roll. If we examine these biblical manuscripts from a different standpoint, we find that there are eleven which in our opinion may be assigned to the second century and are thus the earliest Christian manuscripts in existence.

All are on papyrus and in codex form. To these may be added four other Christian non-Biblical texts which in our opinion are to be assigned to the second century: Augustine provides two direct references to Jewish scriptural codices in the 4th century, as Bill Adler pointed out to me.

Augustine, De fide rerum quae non videntur 6. Utrum autem illi imperitia an malitia, hoc esse in hebraeis codicibus responderunt, quod et graeci et latini habebant atque dicebant.

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Coactus est homo velut mendositatem corrigere, volens post magnum periculum non remanere sine plebe. Unde etiam nobis videtur aliquando te quoque in nonnullis falli potuisse. Sin autem Judaei vestri, ut ipse asseris, malitia, vel imperitia hoc dixerunt esse in voluminibus Hebraeorum, quod in graecis et latinis codicibus continetur; manifestum est eos aut hebraeas ignorare litteras, aut ad irridendos cucurbitarios voluisse mentiri. Resnick thinks that "Augustine is likely to be only projecting Christian usage of the codex upon the Jews" 3 n.

But if Lieberman is correct, the history of the codex must be dramatically rewritten Resnick goes on to repeat, with apparent favor, the idea that "since the earliest disciples apprehended the person of Jesus especially through his unwritten words, which formed an oral tradition [n. Taylor Columbia SC 36ff], [[12]] it is possible that Jewish-Christians would have used t he same form to record this oral tradition as the rabbinic community used to record its Oral Law without violating the ban against its publication. In Lieberman's view, then, Jewish-Christians, 'did this because otherwise they would have transgressed the law.

We would naturally expect the logia of Jesus to be originally copied in codices'" Ultimately, Resnick focuses on the "theological" motivations that solidified the codex as the accepted form of Christian scriptures, without expanding further on the question of its original introduction into Christian usage. It should be emphasized that, as will have been evident from the Typology references, not all scholars agree about the dates to be assigned to these fourteen manuscripts. As already stated, all the above biblical manuscripts nos. The distinction between biblical and non-biblical texts would not have been so obvious to the users of these as it is to us, and both the Egerton Gospel and the Shepherd of Hermas might have been regarded as indistinguishable from the canonical books of the New Testament.

On the question whether the papyrus codex was of Egyptian origin E. Turner writes Typology p. And if Christians are to be credited with the invention of the papyrus codex, Egypt , for the reasons given above, is less likely to have been the country of its invention than, e. Within these limits are found texts, 14 of which are written on parchment and on papyrus. For 83 of these the codex form was chosen. The remaining 35 are rolls, 3 of them opisthograph.

By themselves these figures are not particularly instructive; we have to consider not so much the date of writing as the category of the work. Given that there is no example of any of the four canonical Gospels being written on the recto of a roll i. Such a differentiation would be all the more likely if the Christian adoption of the codex originated, as suggested below p.

Similarly, whereas we have seen that the codex form was closely associated in the second and third centuries with the books essential for the Christian mission, viz. The picture, however, is not quite so clear-cut as this. The first of the categories into which the texts divide is that of Apocrypha. Among the very varied works ranged under this heading there are 10 possible examples of Gospels as we have defined them. Both the second century examples are codices, as we have noted above nos. Of the remaining 8, both manuscripts of the Gospel of Thomas are rolls; so too is the [[44]] so-called Fayum Gospel and an Oxyrhynchus fragment dated to about C.

The remaining 3 manuscripts are codices. The other apocryphal texts, 23 in number, and including Infancy Gospels and Acts of various Apostles, are exclusively codices. In the Patristic section of 39 texts, two works, the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas, both of which had some claim to canonical status, are represented, the former by 2 codices, the latter by 2 rolls one of which is opisthograph and 9 codices.

In view of the persistent use of the roll in the liturgy of the Eastern Church see below, p. We have now to consider possible reasons for this remarkable predilection of the early Christians for the codex form, and endeavour to formulate hypotheses which would at the same time explain the divergence of treatment accorded to biblical and non-biblical texts. Indeed so universal is the Christian use of the codex in the second century that its introduction must date well before C. It is, moreover, significant for the history of the early Church that Christian book-production methods should have severed themselves from Jewish so completely and at so early a date: It has been widely assumed that the codex must have possessed some significant practical advantages over the roll.

After being collected, carefully sorted, melted and liquefied, cans, tins, tubes and foil for food-wrapping are transformed into bars and then sold. The applications of this versatile metal are almost endless and include construction, electrical goods, transport, furnishings and technical installations. A 3-cup espresso coffee maker requires A tyre rim requires and just 3 are enough for a pair of glasses.

The scale of the work behind this sorted waste sector is revealed in the figures. Can the Commission provide a general overview of the data on the sorted collection of metals, and in particular of aluminium, in the various Member States? This is particularly important for materials such as aluminium which require a far larger amount of energy to extract and process as virgin material than to recycle.

In response to the specific questions raised by the Honourable Member:. Additional data and information on the material contents per waste stream are available in the report on the waste thematic strategy COM 13 and the accompanying staff working document — http: Aluminium is present in several waste streams most of them covered by European recycling targets packaging, electric and electronic equipment, construction and demolition waste, end-of-life vehicles.

The priority of the Commission is to ensure the full implementation of existing collection and recycling targets so that aluminium and metals in general are recycled at high rates and in good conditions. Questi tre nomi compaiono in un dossier redatto dall'intelligence saudita sulle possibili minacce di Teheran. Informazioni su scenari poi condivise con paesi amici nel corso di tre riunioni: I sauditi hanno studiato attentamente le mosse dei rivali storici. Three names — Qassem Suleimani, head of the Quds Force, the Iranian group for covert operations, Hassan Boromand, an official who coordinates covert activities in major European capitals, and Majid Alavi, suspected of having played a role in the failed anti-Israeli attack in Thailand — appear in a dossier compiled by the Saudi intelligence services on possible threats from Tehran.

The Saudis have carefully studied the movements of their historic rivals, from whom they are divided by religion Shiites against Sunnis and by a desire to assert their own influence in the Middle East. In view of the above, can the High Representative say whether steps are being taken to monitor the activities of Iranian terrorist cells within the European Union? The European Union has neither the competence nor the operational capacities to monitor the activities of specific targets e. Both the European External Action Service and the European Commission can rely on situational awareness capacities, mainly based on the monitoring of open sources information.

However, these capacities do not constitute a competence or operational capacity to monitor specific targets. Dispositivo che dimezza i consumi dell'auto. L'inventore varesino l'ha inseguita per anni e, dopo averla perfezionata, ha brevettato il sistema in Italia e Svizzera. Per avviare la marcia basta una lieve accelerata di 4 secondi.

Finita la propulsione, con altri 4 secondi di acceleratore si assicura un altro minuto di marcia. Intende avviare un programma sperimentale al fine di promuovere tale brevetto in tutti gli Stati membri? La Commissione ha fissato un forte quadro politico per la misurazione e la riduzione del consumo di combustibile e delle emissioni di CO 2 delle autovetture. Questo comprende il regolamento CE n. Inoltre sono state adottate numerose legislazioni nazionali di attuazione, anche in favore delle ecoinnovazioni. Queste normative creano efficacemente un importante incentivo per la diffusione di tecnologie per il risparmio di carburante e la riduzione della CO 2 , sulla base di oggettivi criteri di prestazione.

The mechanism, known as the kinetic drive system KDS , is inspired by the cycloid curve principle, a principle of physics dating back to Galileo Galilei. The inventor from Varese worked on the system for years and, after perfecting it, patented it in Italy and Switzerland. The prototype has also been approved by the traffic department of the Ticino canton. All that is required to start moving is a slight acceleration for four seconds. After that, thanks to the KDS system, the car carries on at the desired speed for a minute with no need to keep the accelerator pressed down and, therefore, at the minimum engine speed where the saving is made.

Once propulsion is finished, another four seconds of acceleration provide another minute of driving. This ensures a smooth drive. In view of the above, can the Commission state whether it is aware of this device, which can reduce fuel consumption and, above all, harmful fuel emissions for cars? Does it intend to launch an experimental programme to promote this patent in all Member States? The Commission is aware of the new mechanical device to reduce fuel consumption and harmful emission from passenger cars mentioned by the Honourable Member.

To mitigate emissions from transport, the European Union has adopted new regulations and continuously supports research and innovation for the development of new technologies and solutions. The Commission has established a robust policy framework for the measurement and the reduction of fuel consumption and CO 2 emissions of passenger cars.

Furthermore, numerous implementing legislations have been adopted, also covering eco-innovations. These regulations effectively create an important incentive for the deployment of CO 2 and fuel saving technologies, based on objective performance criteria. La Duke University di Durham ha realizzato un impianto pilota che sfrutta gli escrementi degli animali per ricavarne metano, da bruciare per mettere in movimento un generatore di energia elettrica.

La ricerca e lo sviluppo sui rifiuti agricoli sono stati portati avanti nell'ambito dei programmi-quadro di ricerca promossi dall'UE fin dall'inizio. Il biogas viene prodotto in impianti commerciali con l'ausilio di numerose fonti quali i fanghi di depurazione, i rifiuti agricoli, i concimi, i rifiuti biologici e le discariche municipali.

Attualmente la Commissione sta valutando se tali criteri volontari siano sufficienti oppure se non sia necessario introdurre criteri vincolanti. Duke University in Durham has constructed a pilot plant that processes animal dung to recover methane from it, which is burned to power an electricity generator.

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It is a new form of renewable energy that many, in fact, have thought about for some time, and which could make a large contribution to the reduction of greenhouse gases and to energy production. Capturing the methane produced to put it on the market to fuel cars, for example, would be extremely difficult, which is why it is better to use it in situ.

Research to assess the actual environmental impact has just begun, as has work to find solutions for making the system even more efficient and economically viable. Research and development on agricultural waste has been pursued under EU Research framework programmes from the beginning. Biogas is been produced at commercial installations using a large number of sources including sewage sludge, farm wastes, manures, municipal organic waste and landfills.

Across Europe, more than biogas plants are operating commercially today. Biogas production may indeed help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This will depend on the extent to which biogas will substitute the use of fossil fuels in a life cycle perspective, and on whether methane emissions to the atmosphere can be avoided. Research and development is continuing in this area to produce better gas quality, to improve operational efficiency and safety and to help developing better regulation to bring the innovation to the market.

If biofuels are produced, Member States should ensure that it meets the sustainability criteria contained in that same directive. Regarding solid and gaseous biomass for heating and cooling, the Commission published a report on a sustainability scheme for non-biofuel biomass in and recommended to Member States to use the Renewable Energy Directive requirements. The Commission is currently assessing if these voluntary criteria are sufficient, or if binding criteria would be needed. Escudo antimisiles de EE.

Graves consecuencias medioambientales y retroceso en el necesario desarme mundial. Does the Commission believe that Spain has infringed European law in the light of the provisions of the Aarhus Convention on public participation in environmental matters? Does the Commission not consider it necessary that information should be provided at all times on the payload of those ships so that environmental risks can be assessed effectively and plans can be put into effect to mitigate those risks?

Does the Commission intend to seek information from the Spanish Government regarding these issues? The Commission would like to inform the Honourable Member that the establishment of a defence shield as well as related measures is undoubtedly an activity serving national defence purposes and as such outside the scope of the Aarhus Convention. The Commission does not therefore intend to take any further action in this matter.

Respuesta de la Alta Representante y Vicepresidenta Sra. Russia has already warned that it reserves the right to reject further disarmament measures and to withdraw from the START Treaty on limiting nuclear weapons; and Spain, and thus Europe, will be turned into a prime military target for potential enemies of the United States, implying a greater likelihood of being attacked.

Taking into account the consequences for, and changes to, EU security which this decision by the previous Spanish Government involves: The EU does not have a position on this issue, which is the sovereign responsibility of Member States. Der Bereich Bildung wurde nicht explizit aus dem Anwendungsbereich der Richtlinie ausgenommen.

The directive, which was also transposed in Germany at the end of , should create a legal framework for facilitating freedom of establishment and freedom to provide services within the European Union. The directive applies to all services provided for remuneration, albeit with the exception of a number of sectors such as financial or healthcare services.

The educational sector was not expressly excluded from the scope of the directive. Therefore, the directive could be applied to fee-based private education. The Services Directive applies indeed to education services as long as the educational institution concerned is not essentially financed by public funds. The activites of privately financed universities are therefore covered by Services Directive. In a federal Member State, an authorisation of a private educational institution granted by one state Land should therefore be recognised, in principle, in the other states.

Exceptions are possible where justified by a public interest objective. Exceptions to this general rule of unlimited duration of authorisations are, inter alia , permitted when the authorisations are automatically renewed or are subject only to a condition that they continue to fulfil certain requirements. This could apply, for example, in the case of privately funded universities where a regular check is needed as regards the quality of the education being provided by a private university.

To what extent is the Commission aware of this incident, and how has it been involved in any subsequent investigation? The study concludes that single-use plastic carrier bags, mostly given away for free by retailers, are particularly harmful to the environment as they are not degradable and are discarded more frequently. Does the Commission recognise the inconsistencies present throughout the report, particularly in terms of the legal measures recommended by BIOIS?

The views expressed in the study are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect possible future actions of the Commission. The assessment of various options to reduce the environmental impact of plastic carrier bags is still ongoing. A decision on the most appropriate instrument and its scope will be taken upon completion of the evaluation process. Nello specifico, si pone in rilievo che i cittadini in questione raccontano di un numero crescente di segnalazioni circa la presenza di personale militare inglese e francese a fianco degli insorti per organizzare azioni di guerriglia.

L'Unione europea ritiene che le brutali aggressioni e le diffuse violazioni dei diritti umani inflitte alla popolazione dalle forze di sicurezza del regime hanno fomentato la violenza in Siria. Tuttavia, l'UE ha continuamente sollecitato l'opposizione siriana a seguire un percorso non violento verso un cambiamento democratico ed inclusivo. L'UE sostiene pienamente l'inviato speciale delle Nazioni Unite e della Lega araba, Kofi Annan, e il suo piano in sei punti per una composizione politica della crisi. L'UE accoglie con favore le risoluzioni e del Consiglio di sicurezza dell'ONU, che autorizzano l'invio di osservatori ONU al fine di sorvegliare in modo imparziale la piena cessazione della violenza e l'attuazione degli altri aspetti contenuti nel piano dell'inviato speciale.

Tali misure sono concepite in modo da minimizzare gli effetti negativi sulla popolazione e vengono sottoposte a costanti revisioni. According to the witness accounts of a number of Italian citizens resident in Syria, reported in the newspaper Avvenire , the situation in the country is vastly different from that reported by European media. In particular, the sanctions imposed on the Syrian Government have had a very negative impact. It is highlighted in particular that, according to these citizens, there are a growing number of British and French military personnel working alongside the rebels to organise guerrilla activity.

Support for the liberation of Syria apparently now consists of contributing to the manipulation of information and fomenting civil unrest, which is destined to last for several years. In the coming days, the ultimatum for the withdrawal of the army will expire, despite the serious reservations of many inhabitants of outlying villages who see the military presence as a kind of guarantee of their safety as, according to reports, ambushes perpetrated by the rebels are rife.

The EU considers that violence in Syria has been instigated by the brutal attacks and widespread human rights violations inflicted by the regime's security forces on the population. Nonetheless, it has consistently called on the Syrian opposition to pursue a non-violent path towards democratic and inclusive change. It welcomes the UN Security Council's Resolutions and authorising the deployment of UN observers, which will provide impartial reporting on the implementation of a full cessation of violence as well as the other aspects of the Special Envoy's plan.

The EU is ready to provide necessary assistance to the mission upon request and urges all parties to the conflict to fully cooperate with UN observers. The measures are designed to minimise any negative effects on the population. The sanctions are kept under constant review. Un'azienda ha messo a punto un'innovativa pompa di calore a gas zeolite che, se impiegata su larga scala, permetterebbe enormi risparmi sia economici che ambientali.

L'energia cinetica delle molecole che si trovano rallentate viene trasformata in calore. Le zeoliti sono materiali estremamente porosi che hanno trovato vasta applicazione in molti settori industriali. La Commissione ha sostenuto la ricerca in quest'ambito attraverso i programmi quadro di ricerca e sviluppo tecnologico ed altri programmi.

A company has developed an innovative zeolite gas heat pump, which, if used on a large scale, would have enormous advantages in terms of both saving money and protecting the environment. The new heat source was produced synthetically in order to be used in heating systems. The molecules are slowed down and give off kinetic energy, which is transformed into heat. The pump is powered by built-in solar panels which trigger the adsorption process in the zeolite. Zeolites are highly porous materials that have found widespread applications throughout many industrial sectors.

The Commission has supported research into these materials through its Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development and other Programmes. The topics cover all aspects from zeolite synthesis to innovative applications. The Commission also supports research on heat pumps where both, innovative heat pumps and heat pump integration into larger hybrid systems are considered. Cauzione per smaltire adeguatamente i cellulari. Si tratta di una cauzione di 10 euro sull'acquisto di telefoni cellulari e smartphone che verrebbe poi restituita al consumatore una volta che ha destinato l'apparecchio a un centro di smaltimento adeguato.

Una stima rivela che vi sarebbero circa 83 milioni di vecchi cellulari nelle case dei tedeschi. La cauzione sui cellulari rappresenterebbe un primo progetto pilota. Se dovesse funzionare, infatti, si potrebbe estendere ad altri prodotti tecnologici come i computer, i tablet, le console per i videogiochi e apparecchi simili. La restituzione di una somma di denaro ai consumatori potrebbe indurre gli stessi a porre maggiore attenzione al rispetto dell'ambiente e, quindi, a destinare i prodotti tecnologici a centri di riciclo adeguati.

La proposta appena descritta ha suscitato non poche polemiche da parte delle associazioni dei produttori di oggetti elettronici. In Germany a proposal has been put forward to encourage more responsible use of technological products among consumers. As we know, the recycling of electronic appliances is fundamental for protecting the environment. The deposit on mobile telephones would be a first pilot scheme. If it were to work, it could be extended to other technological products such as computers, tablets, video games consoles and similar appliances.

The return of a sum of money to consumers could prompt them to pay greater attention to respecting the environment and, as a result, to send technological products to suitable recycling centres. The proposal described has aroused fierce debate by the associations of electronic goods manufacturers. Deposit systems can make a contribution to the achievement of higher collection targets, but have also shown to have the potential to create administrative burdens and possible market barriers.

In particolare sul fronte delle PMI, la recente indagine sull'accesso ai finanziamenti condotta dalla Commissione europea consente di rilevare che in Italia le condizioni applicate dalle banche registrano un netto peggioramento rispetto agli altri paesi dell'UE. Dall'indagine emerge che, negli ultimi sei mesi, ben il 75 per cento delle PMI italiane ha registrato un incremento dei tassi d'interesse, mentre quasi il 65 per cento ha dichiarato di aver visto aumentare le commissioni bancarie applicate sui finanziamenti.

Tra i principali paesi dell'area euro, Francia e Germania mostrano uno scenario ben diverso da quello italiano.

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Analogo discorso per il credito al consumo: Le PMI dipendono in larga misura dal finanziamento bancario e, pertanto, si dovrebbero evitare penalizzazioni di costo per le stesse all'interno dei singoli Stati membri. Le condizioni applicate dalle banche per la concessione di crediti sono determinate da molti fattori diversi. Banks are exerting ever greater pressure on businesses and households alike. With reference to SMEs, a recent survey on access to funding conducted by the Commission clearly shows that the terms applied to bank loans in Italy have worsened in comparison with other EU countries.



The figures for the major eurozone countries show that the situation in France and Germany is very different from that in Italy. With regard to interest rates, the assertions made by the SMEs polled by the Commission are borne out by comparative data compiled by the central banks and released by the ECB. The figures for new loans granted to non-financial companies show that economic conditions in Italy have severely deteriorated over the last two years.

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In , the interest rates paid by Italian companies in were lower than those in the other major eurozone countries. In more recent times, however, expenditure on bank interest by Italian companies has been higher than that by their competitors elsewhere in Europe. The same applies to consumer credit: SMEs rely heavily on bank loans, and costs which penalise such companies should therefore be avoided in individual Member States. The aim should therefore be to maximise harmonisation, through a single corpus of rules.

In view of the above, can the Commission say whether the terms applied by banks in Italy are incompatible with this objective and whether they could result in risks and underlying exposure being transferred to SMEs, thus constituting a measure that restricts competition between them? Many different factors impact on banks' lending standards.

This may explain why Italian banks have tightened their standards to a greater extent than their peers in other countries. In this respect, tightening of lending standards may be legitimate given that banks are expected to price loans according to the perceived riskiness of the borrower. La gestione degli immobili confiscati ai mafiosi richiede un sistema di trasparenza e di adeguate forme di controllo volte ad assicurare che gli stessi abbiano la funzione e la fruizione sociale che la legge impone e prevede.

Sulle orme della legge n. I beni confiscati normalmente sono venduti in aste pubbliche e i proventi ricavati sono trasferiti al bilancio nazionale. The management of properties confiscated from the mafia requires transparency and suitable forms of monitoring to ensure that they are given a social function and are used as required and established by law.

The possibility of allocating the assets confiscated from mafia bosses and other representatives of organised crime to publicly beneficial purposes has assumed essential symbolic value in the fight against the mafia and is a strategic tool that also makes it possible to challenge the mafia in the media. The commitment of the European institutions must be to create conditions which ensure that the confiscated assets can increasingly become a resource able to effectively support the intended economic and social development of a territory that has long been suffocated by the sprawling presence of organised crime.

Within the framework of recent European legislation adopted to fight the interference of organised crime in businesses and the economy, particular importance attaches to provisions on the traceability of financial flows regarding the implementation and supply of public works and services. In particular, these provisions aim to prevent criminal infiltration in the area of public tenders, contracts, supplies and funding, creating the conditions for the traceability of all financial resources invested, mainly thanks to the provisions regarding the use of dedicated bank or post office accounts, even if they are not exclusively used for such purposes.

In view of this, can the Commission state whether European calls for tenders have been published to allow public involvement by the potential beneficiaries of properties confiscated from the mafia, and indicate the European legislation that guarantees the traceability of the flows of EU funds at all levels? These directives are applicable only to purchases of supplies, services and works, made by Member States and other contracting authorities.

In addition, the Commission has no specific information from Member States regarding possible tenders organised by Member States for the valorisation of the assets confiscated by Member States from the mafia. There are no specific provisions at EU level requiring the persons contracting with public authorities to use dedicated bank accounts for the related financial transactions with a view to ensuring the traceability of the flows of EU funds.

Confiscated assets are normally sold in public auctions and the resulting proceeds are transferred to the national treasury. In Italy and a few other Member States, confiscated assets may become public property and can be reused for public or social purposes. This proposal, which intends to facilitate the management of property frozen in view of later confiscation, requires Member States to introduce measures aimed at ensuring an adequate management of such property, notably by granting powers to realise frozen property, at least where it is liable to decline in value or become uneconomical to maintain.

Interventi simili sono stati adottati in Francia la taxe soda sulle bevande gassate zuccherate, circa due centesimi di euro per lattina ed in Danimarca la tassa sul cibo ricco di grassi saturi, come snack e merendine, di circa 2 euro per chilo. Negli Usa, molti Stati applicano da tempo una tassa sulle bevande zuccherate dell'ordine del per cento del prezzo. Secondo le informazioni a disposizione della Commissione nel la Danimarca ha aumentato l'imposta su cioccolato e dolciumi la cui introduzione risale al Tale legislazione si applica ai prodotti confezionati ad alto tenore di zuccheri, sale o caffeina.

Al momento la Commissione non ha intenzione di occuparsi di normative europee sulla tassazione di determinati tipi di alimenti o di additivi alimentari. A study project has been set up in Italy to introduce a tax on junk food. Its purpose is to reduce the risk of excess weight and obesity. Studies conducted on the American population show a clear positive relationship between the consumption of soft drinks and body weight, above all among young people the relationship is only doubted by the studies sponsored by the soft drink industry.

Among adults, the obesity rate is However, the most alarming statistics are those regarding child obesity. An obese child has a greater risk of developing chronic illnesses as an adult. Obesity is, to all intents and purposes, a public health problem since, besides reducing the quality of life and work capacity, it is a risk factor for numerous chronic illnesses, such as hypertension, type-2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease, the treatment of which requires considerable resources.

Does the Commission intend to start a specific study on this issue, so as to arrive at a clear European law, taking account of fiscal best practices and the measures already adopted by Member States, given the need to correct externalities and information gaps in the food and drink market? These programmes could be realised by allocating part of the tax revenue to health promotion for the categories most at risk both in schools, with the involvement of parents, and in healthcare structures through a promotional campaign for healthy eating, through improvements to the food supplied in hospitals and through limits on access to hyper-calorific products from automatic dispensing machines and hospital bars.

The Commission is aware that some EU Member States have introduced food taxes as a public health instrument. According to the information available to the Commission Denmark increased the tax on chocolate and confectionery in it was introduced in It applies to packaged products with high sugar, salt or caffeine levels.



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There is limited experience with these type of taxes in Member States and limited knowledge of the impact of such initiatives on overweight and obesity trends. For a record of the most recent meeting on the issue the Honourable Member can consult the report at:. La plastica segnala quando subisce danni diventando di colore rosso.

Tale cambiamento provoca la tipica colorazione rossa. A new material which can self-repair when it is damaged has been designed by a team from the University of Southern Mississippi. The innovative plastic imitates the ability of human skin to heal over. The plastic reveals when it has been damaged by turning red. Then, if exposed to sunlight or artificial light, which causes changes in its temperature and pH, it can repair itself.

The self-repair mechanism consists of long polymer chains that are crossed by small molecular links known as bridges. When the plastic is damaged or cracked, the bridges break and modify their shape. This change causes the typical red colouring. Therefore, when the plastic becomes damaged, it will be possible to see this easily through the red mark that forms around the lesion. The new plastic is a sign of innovation and progress compared to other plastics which can only self-repair once. The product developed in the United States works just like human skin and can self-repair forever.

Considering that this new material could have great potential and numerous applications, is the Commission aware of the innovation and does it consider that there would be environmental or human health risks should it be used in Europe? The Commission is not aware of the specific innovation referred to by the Honourable Member and has no data on possible environmental or human health risks.

However, if appropriate, the Commission will consult its risk assessment bodies and Scientific Committees if the use of these materials would give rise to any concern. Una regolamentazione per il crowdfunding. Come nuovo strumento per la raccolta di capitali, il cosiddetto crowdfunding sta avendo un impatto in tutta Europa. Tuttavia, per questo tipo di piattaforme non risulta ancora chiaro se possa applicarsi la normativa europea in materia di tutela degli investitori e di rendicontazione finanziaria o se si debba far riferimento alle normative nazionali in materia di fundraising e strumenti finanziari.

Il crowd-funding potrebbe rappresentare un mezzo economicamente efficace per aggregare tanti piccoli contributi, individuare potenziali finanziatori e integrare le fonti tradizionali di finanziamento. A new tool for raising capital, so-called crowdfunding, is having an impact throughout Europe.

Crowdfunding has been used as a model for funding the most diverse start-up ventures on platforms such as growvc. However, it is still not clear whether European legislation on the protection of investors and financial reporting can be applied to this kind of platform or whether national legislation on fund-raising and financial instruments should apply.

Can the Commission therefore say what rules are applicable with regard to the legal status of crowdfunding platforms and investors and to the ways of accessing funding through crowdfunding, also stipulating what legislation on financial market instruments should cover crowdfunding? Crowd-funding could offer a cost effective means for aggregating together many small contributions and locating potential backers, supplement traditional funding sources. In practice, the funding provided can take a wide variety of complementary forms — from more traditional risk financing through to types of donation or forms of pre-payment for services.

Given the variety in funding mechanisms on offer and nascent form of the models, the interaction of these models with regulatory requirements across the financial services will vary. Given this variety, a first step in order to ensure that the appropriate regulation is in place is to obtain greater clarity on the different forms of crowd-financing and the scope and nature of the services being provided. Crowd-funding could become a vital source of potential funding for growth, social and cultural innovation across Europe. The Commission will follow developments closely, from a regulatory perspective as well as a policy perspective.

No ano passado, este prazo era de quatro meses. Tendo em conta que:. Last year, the period in question was four months.

The Portuguese fleet has been weakened and rendered obsolete by the adverse developments of the last two decades;. What action will the Commission take under the future common fisheries policy CFP , to mitigate this problem? How will the individual profiles of each country including fleet reduction over the past two decades, size of the EEZ and quantity of available resources, and fish consumption per capita be taken into account in the next CFP? The reform proposals announced so far do not do so. Dependence on imported fish has increased over the last decades and now reaches levels where two third of fish consumed comes from imported sources.

This is the average ratio for the European Union. For the reform of the common fisheries policy CFP the Commission proposes management of our resources in such a way that the exploitation is maximised in a sustainable way. This will lead to larger stocks, with higher catch potential and thus higher yields than currently are harvested. The future CFP should take into account regional and national specificities as much as possible.

For example, the Commission has proposed that fisheries management is regionalized, with Member States and stakeholders in the region taking the lead in defining the measures to implement the policies and to meet the policy objectives and targets. National characteristics may be reflected better in this regional approach to management, with a number of general objectives and management strategies, to ensure equal conditions and level playing field for the fishing industry throughout the Union.

Or does it believe that the same rules should be applied when more than one cohesion policy objective is being addressed? The current state aid rules allow for the financing of cross-border cooperation projects. Some are due to the participation of partners from different Member States in each project, others to the type of projects supported. The current initiative of the Commission to modernise state aid legislation including the revision of the state aid Guidelines to be applied in the next period allows for a broad discussion on such issues, including the projects on European Territorial Cooperation.

In this context, the Commission welcomes all proposals. Within cohesion policy, the territorial cooperation objective provides added value and has great potential in terms of competitiveness, particularly through job creation, and promoting economic growth. This implies a need for more strategic fund programming and for better coordination in terms both of funds and of European internal and external policies.

With regard to the territorial cooperation objective, the priority has to be a territorial approach focusing in particular on specific regional characteristics, not only from a sectoral point of view, but also, and above all, from a strategic perspective encompassing the whole of the geographical area involved. How can the Commission improve strategic programming and coordinate territorial cooperation financing more effectively with the European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument? In what ways could synergies be fostered between territorial cooperation and the pre-accession instrument?

What specific measures does the Commission propose to enable the implementation of territorial cooperation programmes, in their various aspects, to be linked effectively with the financing instrument for development cooperation and the European Development Fund? The Commission will continue close coordination. In addition, IPA funds will continue to finance the participation of enlargement countries, where appropriate, in the transnational and interregional cooperation programmes under the European Territorial Cooperation ETC goal of cohesion policy.

This trend is further supported in the Commission's proposal for IPA for No caso afirmativo, com quais medidas? Because they are directly linked to new challenges such as globalisation, climate change, demographic change and migration, they have the potential to become key elements in European strategies to tackle them. Will the Commission move forward with practical measures to promote the outermost regions as. If so, with what measures? Is it in favour of strengthening the role of the outermost regions within the renewed European Neighbourhood Policy?

How does it propose to do this? Will it publish any specific proposal aimed at taking advantage of the regional liberalisation of the outermost regions and trade development, particularly as regards improving transport between these regions and neighbouring territories? In view of the ORs' geographical position, EU policies with an external dimension are key to delivering this strategy. To this end, the Commission intends to use the updated strategy to address the issues raised by the Honourable Member. This includes taking account of the interests of the ORs when negotiating trade agreements with their neighbours, when trade agreements cover products produced in these regions or and in regard to the improvement of transport between these regions and neighbouring territories.

The Commission also intends to continue developing better coordination and synergy between the cooperation programmes supported by the ERDF and other instruments the European Development Fund, the Development Cooperation Instrument, or the Partnership Instrument. What is the justification for the difference between the maximum co-financing rates for the two cohesion policy objectives of growth and jobs and territorial cooperation, especially bearing in mind that the increased budget allocation for the latter is likely to translate into a higher number of programmes in that area?

Regarding the territorial cooperation objective, why is there no proposal to differentiate between the various co-financing rates according to category, level of development and regional specifics? This contributes to ensuring a critical mass for the implementation of ETC projects given that with a relatively. The Commission does not expect that the increased funding proposed would lead to a higher number of ETC programmes.

It would rather expect roughly the same number of programmes, benefitting from increased financial resources. Taking into account that the scope and purpose of cooperation programmes is different than those of national or regional programmes, there should not be a direct competition on the basis of the co-financing rates. The Commission proposal foresees a uniform maximum co-financing rate for all ETC programmes. This is with a view to simplifying implementation, where handling different maximum co-financing rates can add a layer of complexity in programmes and projects. Simplification is of particular importance for ETC programmes given the implementation challenges deriving from the multi-country context.

How much of this total will Portugal lose because of the cancellation of the TGV project? All these lots were supposed to be implemented in single phasing before The Commission has asked for the submission of a revised project, but it hasn't so far received it. The revision can concern technical parameters of the lines, number and characteristics of the lines, the phasing of the project or a combination of these factors.

As regards the Cohesion Fund no funds were yet attributed to the financing of this project. The Commission is waiting for the submission of a revised project and for decisions of the Portuguese authorities in this respect. The issue of Palestinian prisoners has not been made part of the political agenda of the peace negotiations. In particular the High Representative was very concerned about the critical health condition of the Palestinians held in Israeli administrative detention who had been on hunger strike for more than two months and the possibility that this might lead to a loss of life.

Moreover, countless thousands of unemployed people have lost their entitlement to the unemployment welfare benefits for which they contributed when in work. One of the consequences of this scenario has been a very sharp rise in emigration. Over the past weeks, there have been numerous reports on the plight of many Portuguese citizens who have had no option but to leave their country. There are repeated cases of Portuguese citizens sleeping on the streets, in cars, at train stations and even in public toilets, in the United Kingdom, Luxembourg and Switzerland, and there is also news of problems with workers in Belgium and the Netherlands.

The charitable institutions, including Catholic missions, which have been asked to help feed these people are in despair and are calling for a concerted campaign to dissuade people from emigrating if they do not have contacts abroad and an employment contract. What help has been, or will be, made available to people who find themselves in this situation and to the institutions that offer them support?

What measures will be taken to deal with this calamity, for which the Commission manifestly bears a share of the blame? The crisis has had a severe impact, especially on low-productivity economic sectors and has resulted in high unemployment. The Commission is aware that there is an increasing number of citizens taking up residence in other Member States, who are in need of social assistance. However, the Commission does not have precise figures, namely in what concerns Portugal.

The European Social Fund contributes to improving the social situation and the living conditions of the Union citizens by financing a variety of actions ranging from promoting labour market participation to social inclusion and anti-discrimination measures. In the Commission approved the European Platform against Poverty and Social Exclusion aiming at reducing poverty by providing a framework for.

The European Parliament adopted a resolution in in which it advocated establishing a minimum income at European level to help to combat poverty when other social poverty prevention methods such as access to public health and education services, professional training, housing, employment at a fair wage and decent pensions have failed. The resolution advocates a minimum income appropriate to the European Union on a universal basis, supported by Community funds, as a poverty prevention measure and to ensure social justice and equality of opportunity for all, without undermining the specific characteristics of each Member State.

The Minimum wage concerns individual earnings of workers, while the poverty threshold derives from household income, including from sources other than work. The adequacy of minimum wages would be better illustrated by an estimate of net disposable income, including benefits and taxes. According to this calculation, a typical single full-time worker earning the minimum wage is at risk of poverty in eight countries: Setting minimum wages at appropriate levels helps preventing growing in-work poverty and inequalities. The impact of the minimum wage on both demand and supply can differ markedly across Member States.

Therefore, wage floors need to be sufficiently adjustable, with the involvement of the social partners to reflect overall economic developments. The Commission is further exploring several evidence based approaches including support for a tax-benefit micro-simulation model and social experimentation. In addition, the commission administrates a European Parliament pilot project Social solidarity for social integration intended to raise awareness of the adequacy and the role of minimum income schemes in fighting poverty and social exclusion.

This decision to suspend orders, according to chief executive Tom Enders, is retaliation against the European carbon emissions tax, introduced by the European Union and applicable to all airlines using European airspace. In view of the above, can the Commission state what its view of the situation is and what actions have been or will be taken to avoid redundancies? The Commission would further refer the. The EU has taken a series of initiatives to tackle tuberculosis, including drug-resistant forms of the disease.

Surveillance of tuberculosis has expanded over the past decade to cover the entire European Region of the World Health Organisation. Despedimentos na Bosch — Braga, Portugal. Once again, it is being proved that the sole aim of this practice — hiring temporary workers to meet the permanent needs of companies — is to make it easier to pay off workers. The district of Braga has been one of the hardest hit by unemployment, which has led to significant social problems in the area. According to the information received from the Portuguese authorities the enterprise.

There was no financing from the ERDF for this project. The Commission does not envisage at this stage proposing changes to the existing EU legislation on temporary agency work or fixed-term work. However, the Commission has launched a study to assess its impact. Although it has already expressed political support for this innovative initiative, the European Commission has yet to mobilise the resources necessary to provide financial support for the project.

What financial instruments that currently exist or are to be created in the Multiannual Financial Framework, either as part of the development cooperation policy or under another heading, are available to support this initiative? During the last five years, Ecuador has experienced profound political, economic and social change. However, it is inevitable that failings and underdevelopment continue, which cannot be ignored.

To begin with, the levels of poverty are still high, despite the clearly positive progress that has been confirmed here. This situation places new demands and challenges on EU development cooperation policy and its relationship with Ecuador. The Ecuadorian authorities have been advocating a redirection of cooperation policies towards development, underlining in particular the importance of cooperation in the areas of education, science and technology, and away from a welfare vision. What cooperation projects are currently in progress with Ecuador in the areas of education, science and technology?

This review was carried out in close cooperation with the Ecuadorian authorities and Member States and maintained education and economic development as the EU's cooperation priorities. Tangible results have been achieved. A progressive increase in state investment in education is allowing for infrastructure and equipment improvements, together with the introduction of measures such as performance evaluation systems for students, teaching staff and school rectors. Ecuador has decided not to sign the trade agreement between the European Union, Peru and Colombia.

In fact, the Ecuadorian Government supports a trade agreement aimed at complementary production, focusing on aid for development and not posing a threat to the weaker productive and service sectors of the Ecuadorian economy, nor to its sovereignty over key sectors of its economy.

Given that negotiations with Ecuador have recently been reopened with a view to signing a trade agreement, may I ask the Commission:. Is it prepared to negotiate an agreement based on a logic of complementarity rather than competition, which would pose a threat to its weakest productive and service sectors? The Commission notes that although contacts between itself and the Ecuadorian authorities have continued to be rather frequent since the conclusion of trade negotiations with Colombia and Peru, no formal negotiations have been reopened with Ecuador since the latter's decision to suspend their participation in the multiparty trade agreement back in Nonetheless, the Commission has consistently maintained an open door policy not only insofar as the participation of Ecuador — and Bolivia for that matter — in the Trade Agreement with Colombia and Peru are warranted in its text via an accession clause, but also by being fully transparent with regard to the prospects of such participation taking into account the requirements of the EU's ambitious trade policy.

As in all trade negotiations, the Commission would therefore be prepared to take into account the specificities of the Ecuadorian economy with a view to agreeing on an appropriate package without, however, reducing the overall level of ambition that characterises EU trade agreements. Greece is one of the partners participating in this project, and the elimination has come about owing to concerns that Greek gas company DEPA will not be able to continue carrying out the project.

Azerbaijan doubts that DEPA will be able to comply with its obligations towards the project. However, there is no intergovernmental agreement on a line interconnecting Greece, Italy and Albania. How does the Commission evaluate this development from the perspective of the interests of the EU? The selection of pipelines to transport gas from the Shah Deniz II gas field in Azerbaijan within the European Union is a commercial decision, which is taken by the Shah Deniz 2 consortium on the basis of specific criteria.

In a letter to the President of the Commission and the President of the European Council, the heads of 12 EU Member States have called for the implementation of liberalisation measures to encourage pan-European growth. The signatories call for liberalisation measures and the removal of protectionism.

The prime ministers further call for more intensive negotiations with Japan and the Latin American Common Market, Mercosur. The Commission takes the calls to deliver open global markets and strengthen the contribution of external trade to growth and jobs in Europe very seriously. Bilateral negotiations have just been launched with Georgia and Moldova and about to be launched with Armenia.

Consultations are ongoing with Member States to launch negotiations with Vietnam. The Commission will prepare a report to this end. However, some analysts are predicting further political obstructions. The Commission welcomes the recent progress in Bosnia and Herzegovina as outlined in the question of the Honourable Member. The country is indeed lagging behind and needs to expedite political reforms at all levels, before an eventual EU membership application could be considered credible by the Council.

The Commission recently proposed suspending one third of the regional fund allocations for Hungary with effect from the start of This is an unprecedented step, making use of the newly enhanced sanctions for maintaining budgetary discipline. The country is expecting a deficit of 3. This, however, exceeds the permitted limit. Such a decision is, however, more than controversial.

The Hungarian budget for and complies with European rules. The Hungarian Government has described the decision as unfounded and unfair. The fact that the Hungarian deficit is currently among the lowest is also important. Does the Commission really think it necessary and expedient to punish Hungary by freezing one third of its regional fund allocations? Moreover, the budget still incorporates temporary revenues from extraordinary sectoral levies.

The Cohesion Fund suspension leaves the possibility for Hungary to continue investments through the Cohesion Fund and launch new projects, as payments resulting from previous commitments under the Cohesion Fund can continue. Once the Council has established that Hungary has taken effective action in response to this recommendation, the suspension will be lifted.

The budget deficit is foreseen by the Commission services to reach 2. Therefore, the partial suspension of the commitments from the Cohesion Fund for Hungary is proposed to be lifted. Eight large European energy companies have come together in an informal alliance for secure energy. The alliance is described as a loosely based coalition of progressive energy companies sharing similar views on the rapid transformation of the energy system. EU firms are calling for legally enforceable targets to be set for in relation to emission cuts, renewables and energy efficiency.

The alliance has called on the Commission and the Council Presidency to decide on legal mandates in respect of binding targets for renewables, CO 2 and energy efficiency up to