Their son and heir, Alexander, was raised with care, being educated by select prominent philosophers. Philip is said to have wept for joy when Alexander performed a feat of which no one else was capable, taming the wild horse, Bucephalus , at his first attempt in front of a skeptical audience including the king. Amidst the cheering onlookers Philip swore that Macedonia was not large enough for Alexander.
When Philip was on campaign Alexander would remark with pride at the report of each victory that his father would leave him nothing of note to do. And yet the faithless king fell in love with a young woman, Cleopatra. He married her apparently for love when he was too old for marriage, having divorced Olympias. By that time Philip had built Macedonia into the leading military state of the Balkans. He had acquired his expertise fighting for Thebes and Greek freedom under his patron, Epaminondas.
When Alexander was a teen-ager, Philip was planning a military solution to the contention with the Persian Empire. In the opening campaign against Byzantium he made Alexander "regent" kurios in his absence. There was a source of disaffection, however. Plutarch reports that Alexander and his mother bitterly reproached him for his numerous affairs among the women of his court. Alexander was at the wedding banquet when Attalus , Cleopatra's uncle, made a remark that seemed inappropriate to him.
He asked the Macedonians to pray for an "heir to the kingship" diadochon tes basileias. Rising to his feet Alexander shouted, using the royal "we," "Do we seem like bastards nothoi to you, evil-minded man? The inebriated Philip, rising to his feet, drawing his sword, presumably to defend his wife's uncle, promptly fell. Making a comment that the man who was preparing to cross from Europe to Asia could not cross from one couch to another, Alexander departed, to escort his mother to her native Epirus and to wait himself in Illyria.
Not long after, prompted by Demaratus the Corinthian to mend the dissension in his house, Philip sent Demaratus to bring Alexander home.
The expectation by virtue of which Alexander was diadochos was that as the son of Philip, he would inherit Philip's throne. After a time the king was assassinated. In BC, at the age of 20, Alexander "received the kingship" parelabe ten basileian. Alexander was acquiring dominion over state after state. His presence on the battlefield seemed to ensure immediate victory.
When Alexander the Great died on June 10, BC, he left behind a huge empire which comprised many essentially independent territories. Alexander's empire stretched from his homeland of Macedon itself, along with the Greek city-states that his father had subdued, to Bactria and parts of India in the east. It included parts of the present day Balkans , Anatolia , the Levant , Egypt , Babylonia , and most of the former Persia , except for some lands the Achaemenids formerly held in Central Asia.
In the formal "court" titulature of the Hellenistic empires ruled by dynasties we know as Diadochs, the title was not customary for the Monarch, but has actually been proven to be the lowest in a system of official rank titles, known as Aulic titulature , conferred — ex officio or nominatim — to actual courtiers and as an honorary rank for protocol to various military and civilian officials. Notably in Ptolemaic Egypt , it was reported as the lowest aulic rank, under Philos, during the reign of Ptolemy V Epiphanes.
As there are no modern equivalents, it has been necessary to reconstruct the role from the ancient sources. There is no uniform agreement concerning exactly which historical persons fit the description, or the territorial range over which the role was in effect, or the calendar dates of the period. A certain basic meaning is included in all definitions, however.
The New Latin terminology was introduced by the historians of universal Greek history of the 19th century. Their comprehensive histories of ancient Greece typically covering from prehistory to the Roman Empire ran into many volumes. For example, George Grote in the first edition of History of Greece , , hardly mentions the Diadochi, except to say that they were kings who came after Alexander and Hellenized Asia. In the edition of he defines them as "great officers of Alexander, who after his death carved kingdoms for themselves out of his conquests.
Grote cites no references for the use of Diadochi but his criticism of Johann Gustav Droysen gives him away. Droysen, "the modern inventor of Hellenistic history," [9] not only defined " Hellenistic period " hellenistische These were the second generation of Diadochi rulers. It has never been in question.
Grote uses Droysen's terminology but gives him no credit for it. Instead he attacks Droysen's concept of Alexander planting Hellenism in eastern colonies: So large a number of them is neither verifiable nor probable, unless we either reckon up simple military posts or borrow from the list of foundations really established by his successors.
In a long note he attacks Droysen's thesis as "altogether slender and unsatisfactory. Not enough evidence survives to prove it conclusively, but enough survives to win acceptance for Droysen as the founding father of Hellenistic history. Austin localizes what he considers to be a problem with Grote's view. To Grote's assertion in the Preface to his work that the period "is of no interest in itself," but serves only to elucidate "the preceding centuries," Austin comments "Few nowadays would subscribe to this view.
By Adolf Holm incorporated a footnote describing and evaluating Droysen's arguments. Droysen's "Hellenistic" and "Diadochi Periods" are canonical today. Each one grew out of the previous. Each published an assortment of papers read at the symposium. The term Diadochi as an adjective is being extended beyond its original use, such as " Diadochi Chronicle ," which is nowhere identified as such, or Diadochi kingdoms, "the kingdoms that emerged," even past the Age of the Epigoni.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For other uses, see Diadochus. Kingdom of Ptolemy I Soter. Kingdom of Seleucus I Nicator. Eumenes of Cardia , Pyrrhus of Epirus , and Philetaerus. Cassander , Demetrius Poliorcetes , and Ptolemy Keraunos. Wars of the Diadochi. Wars of Alexander the Great. Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen in German. Philip II and Alexander the Great: Father and Son, Lives and Afterlives. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Greece and Rome. The division of Alexander's empire. Alexander the Great's Generals.
Attalus Parmenion Antipater Eumenes. City states Politics Military. List of ancient Greeks. Philosophers Playwrights Poets Tyrants. Retrieved from " https: Views Read Edit View history. In other projects Wikimedia Commons. This page was last edited on 5 August , at By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. His official historian, Callisthenes of Olynthus , was implicated in the plot, and in the Anabasis of Alexander , Arrian states that Callisthenes and the pages were then tortured on the rack as punishment, and likely died soon after.
When Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general Antipater , an experienced military and political leader and part of Philip II's "Old Guard", in charge of Macedon. In general, Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during Alexander's campaign in Asia.
Atlas of the Macedonian Empire
After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana Raoxshna in Old Iranian to cement relations with his new satrapies, Alexander turned to the Indian subcontinent. He invited the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara a region presently straddling eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan , to come to him and submit to his authority.
Omphis Indian name Ambhi , the ruler of Taxila , whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Hydaspes Jhelum , complied, but the chieftains of some hill clans, including the Aspasioi and Assakenoi sections of the Kambojas known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas , refused to submit.
Alexander not only returned Ambhi his title and the gifts but he also presented him with a wardrobe of "Persian robes, gold and silver ornaments, 30 horses and 1, talents in gold". Alexander was emboldened to divide his forces, and Ambhi assisted Hephaestion and Perdiccas in constructing a bridge over the Indus where it bends at Hund Fox , supplied their troops with provisions, and received Alexander himself, and his whole army, in his capital city of Taxila, with every demonstration of friendship and the most liberal hospitality.
On the subsequent advance of the Macedonian king, Taxiles accompanied him with a force of 5, men and took part in the battle of the Hydaspes River.
After that victory he was sent by Alexander in pursuit of Porus, to whom he was charged to offer favourable terms, but narrowly escaped losing his life at the hands of his old enemy. Subsequently, however, the two rivals were reconciled by the personal mediation of Alexander; and Taxiles, after having contributed zealously to the equipment of the fleet on the Hydaspes, was entrusted by the king with the government of the whole territory between that river and the Indus.
A considerable accession of power was granted him after the death of Philip , son of Machatas; and he was allowed to retain his authority at the death of Alexander himself BC , as well as in the subsequent partition of the provinces at Triparadisus , BC. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought against him from the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and Aornos. The fort of Massaga was reduced only after days of bloody fighting, in which Alexander was wounded seriously in the ankle.
According to Curtius , "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble. In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of Aornos.
Where Was Alexander the Great From?
Alexander followed close behind and captured the strategic hill-fort after four bloody days. He appointed Porus as satrap, and added to Porus' territory land that he did not previously own, towards the south-east, up to the Hyphasis Beas. Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander's army mutinied at the Hyphasis River Beas , refusing to march farther east.
As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs, its depth a hundred fathoms, while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men-at-arms and horsemen and elephants.
For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand war elephants. Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general Coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return; the men, he said, "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland".
Alexander eventually agreed and turned south, marching along the Indus. Along the way his army conquered the Malhi in modern-day Multan and other Indian tribes and Alexander sustained an injury during the siege. Alexander sent much of his army to Carmania modern southern Iran with general Craterus , and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus , while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along the Gedrosian Desert and Makran.
Discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to Susa. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of Opis. They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.
After three days, unable to persuade his men to back down, Alexander gave Persians command posts in the army and conferred Macedonian military titles upon Persian units. The Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness, which Alexander accepted, and held a great banquet for several thousand of his men at which he and they ate together. Afterwards, Alexander travelled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure. There, his closest friend and possible lover, Hephaestion , died of illness or poisoning.
Plutarch 's account is that roughly 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained admiral Nearchus , and spent the night and next day drinking with Medius of Larissa.
Beginnings of the Persian expedition
The common soldiers, anxious about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them. Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination, [] foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and Justin all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned. Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication, [] while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness.
Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence, [] and having seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas, [] Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-pourer. The strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days passed between the start of his illness and his death; such long-acting poisons were probably not available. Several natural causes diseases have been suggested, including malaria and typhoid fever.
A article in the New England Journal of Medicine attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and ascending paralysis. The anguish that Alexander felt after Hephaestion 's death may also have contributed to his declining health. Alexander's body was laid in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus that was filled with honey, which was in turn placed in a gold casket.
While Alexander's funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon, Ptolemy seized it and took it temporarily to Memphis. Ptolemy IX Lathyros , one of Ptolemy's final successors, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one so he could convert the original to coinage. This would fit with the intended destination of Alexander's funeral cortege.
Pompey , Julius Caesar and Augustus all visited the tomb in Alexandria, where Augustus, allegedly, accidentally knocked the nose off. Caligula was said to have taken Alexander's breastplate from the tomb for his own use. His son and successor, Caracalla , a great admirer, visited the tomb during his own reign.
After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy. The so-called " Alexander Sarcophagus ", discovered near Sidon and now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum , is so named not because it was thought to have contained Alexander's remains, but because its bas-reliefs depict Alexander and his companions fighting the Persians and hunting. Alexander's death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed. Arrian and Plutarch claimed that Alexander was speechless by this point, implying that this was an apocryphal story.
Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting that Roxane's baby would be king, if male; with himself, Craterus , Leonnatus, and Antipater as guardians.
However, the infantry, under the command of Meleager , rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. Instead, they supported Alexander's half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus. Eventually, the two sides reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander IV, he and Philip III were appointed joint kings, albeit in name only. Dissension and rivalry soon afflicted the Macedonians, however. The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the Partition of Babylon became power bases each general used to bid for power.
Diodorus stated that Alexander had given detailed written instructions to Craterus some time before his death. Alexander's will called for military expansion into the southern and western Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of Eastern and Western populations. Alexander earned the epithet "the Great" due to his unparalleled success as a military commander.
He never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered. He overcame this by being personally involved in battle, [74] in the manner of a Macedonian king. In his first battle in Asia, at Granicus, Alexander used only a small part of his forces, [ citation needed ] perhaps 13, infantry with 5, cavalry, against a much larger Persian force of 40, By contrast, the Persian infantry was stationed behind its cavalry. This ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked, while his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a considerable advantage over the Persians' scimitars and javelins.
Macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the Persians. Alexander arranged a double phalanx, with the center advancing at an angle, parting when the chariots bore down and then reforming. The advance was successful and broke Darius' center, causing the latter to flee once again. When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents' style. Thus, in Bactria and Sogdiana , Alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his cavalry at the center.
Greek biographer Plutarch c. The outward appearance of Alexander is best represented by the statues of him which Lysippus made, and it was by this artist alone that Alexander himself thought it fit that he should be modelled. For those peculiarities which many of his successors and friends afterwards tried to imitate, namely, the poise of the neck, which was bent slightly to the left, and the melting glance of his eyes, this artist has accurately observed.
Apelles, however, in painting him as wielder of the thunder-bolt, did not reproduce his complexion, but made it too dark and swarthy. Whereas he was of a fair colour, as they say, and his fairness passed into ruddiness on his breast particularly, and in his face. Moreover, that a very pleasant odour exhaled from his skin and that there was a fragrance about his mouth and all his flesh, so that his garments were filled with it, this we have read in the Memoirs of Aristoxenus.
The semi-legendary Alexander Romance also suggests that Alexander exhibited heterochromia iridum: British historian Peter Green provided a description of Alexander's appearance, based on his review of statues and some ancient documents:. Physically, Alexander was not prepossessing.
- HOY | Libro de Caricaturas de HOY (Spanish Edition).
- Clinical Dermatology, An Issue of Veterinary Clinics: Small Animal Practice, E-Book (The Clinics: Veterinary Medicine)?
- Sport I!
- Love Today;
- Murder (The Word of God Encyclopedia Book 8).
Even by Macedonian standards he was very short, though stocky and tough. His beard was scanty, and he stood out against his hirsute Macedonian barons by going clean-shaven. His neck was in some way twisted, so that he appeared to be gazing upward at an angle. His eyes one blue, one brown revealed a dewy, feminine quality. He had a high complexion and a harsh voice. Ancient authors recorded that Alexander was so pleased with portraits of himself created by Lysippos that he forbade other sculptors from crafting his image.
Some of Alexander's strongest personality traits formed in response to his parents. His mother had huge ambitions, and encouraged him to believe it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire. According to Plutarch, among Alexander's traits were a violent temper and rash, impulsive nature, [] which undoubtedly contributed to some of his decisions.
He had a great desire for knowledge, a love for philosophy, and was an avid reader. Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences. During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion, Alexander began to exhibit signs of megalomania and paranoia. He appears to have believed himself a deity, or at least sought to deify himself.
Alexander married three times: He lost another child when Roxana miscarried at Babylon. Alexander also had a close relationship with his friend, general, and bodyguard Hephaestion , the son of a Macedonian noble. Alexander's sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy. Aelian, however, writes of Alexander's visit to Troy where "Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles, and Hephaestion that of Patroclus , the latter hinting that he was a beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles. Green argues that there is little evidence in ancient sources that Alexander had much carnal interest in women; he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life.
Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly, [] showing great self-control in "pleasures of the body". Alexander's legacy extended beyond his military conquests. His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between East and West, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to Greek civilization and influence. His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched, while the Greeks themselves got a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean. Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia.
The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime. Taking advantage of this power vacuum, Chandragupta Maurya referred to in Greek sources as "Sandrokottos" , of relatively humble origin, took control of the Punjab , and with that power base proceeded to conquer the Nanda Empire. Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded some twenty cities that bore his name , most of them east of the Tigris. At first, the cities must have been inhospitable, little more than defensive garrisons. Hellenization was coined by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen to denote the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander's conquest.
This culminated in his aspiration to homogenize the populations of Asia and Europe. However, his successors explicitly rejected such policies. Nevertheless, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, accompanied by a distinct and opposite 'Orientalization' of the successor states. The core of the Hellenistic culture promulgated by the conquests was essentially Athenian.
The resulting syncretism known as Greco-Buddhism heavily influenced the development of Buddhism [ citation needed ] and created a culture of Greco-Buddhist art. Some of the first and most influential figurative portrayals of the Buddha appeared at this time, perhaps modeled on Greek statues of Apollo in the Greco-Buddhist style. Greek astronomical treatise and Paulisa Siddhanta texts depict the influence of Greek astronomical ideas on Indian astronomy. Following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the east, Hellenistic influence on Indian art was far-ranging.
In the area of architecture , a few examples of the Ionic order can be found as far as Pakistan with the Jandial temple near Taxila. Several examples of capitals displaying Ionic influences can be seen as far as Patna , especially with the Pataliputra capital , dated to the 3rd century BC. Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements. Pompey the Great adopted the epithet "Magnus" and even Alexander's anastole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of greatness.
On the other hand, some Roman writers, particularly Republican figures, used Alexander as a cautionary tale of how autocratic tendencies can be kept in check by republican values. Legendary accounts surround the life of Alexander the Great, many deriving from his own lifetime, probably encouraged by Alexander himself. Writing shortly after Alexander's death, another participant, Onesicritus , invented a tryst between Alexander and Thalestris , queen of the mythical Amazons. When Onesicritus read this passage to his patron, Alexander's general and later King Lysimachus reportedly quipped, "I wonder where I was at the time.
In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of the legendary material coalesced into a text known as the Alexander Romance , later falsely ascribed to Callisthenes and therefore known as Pseudo-Callisthenes. This text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout Antiquity and the Middle Ages , [] containing many dubious stories, [] and was translated into numerous languages. Alexander the Great's accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many cultures. Alexander has figured in both high and popular culture beginning in his own era to the present day.
The Alexander Romance , in particular, has had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from Persian to medieval European to modern Greek. Alexander features prominently in modern Greek folklore, more so than any other ancient figure. Any other answer would cause the mermaid to turn into a raging Gorgon who would drag the ship to the bottom of the sea, all hands aboard. In pre-Islamic Middle Persian Zoroastrian literature, Alexander is referred to by the epithet gujastak , meaning "accursed", and is accused of destroying temples and burning the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism.
The Syriac version of the Alexander Romance portrays him as an ideal Christian world conqueror who prayed to "the one true God". According to Josephus , Alexander was shown the Book of Daniel when he entered Jerusalem, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. This is cited as a reason for sparing Jerusalem. In Hindi and Urdu , the name "Sikandar", derived from Persian, denotes a rising young talent.
Apart from a few inscriptions and fragments, texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander were all lost. Their works are lost, but later works based on these original sources have survived.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This article is about the ancient king of Macedonia. For other uses, see Alexander the Great disambiguation. History of Macedonia ancient kingdom. Government of Macedonia ancient kingdom. Battle of the Persian Gate. Indian campaign of Alexander the Great. Death of Alexander the Great. Tomb of Alexander the Great. Partition of Babylon and Diadochi. Personal relationships of Alexander the Great. List of cities founded by Alexander the Great.
Alexander the Great in legend. Alexander the Great in historiography. Ancestors of Alexander the Great 8. Amyntas III of Macedon 2. Philip II of Macedon Eurydice I of Macedon 1. Alexander the Great Alcetas I of Epirus 6. Neoptolemus I of Epirus 3. History portal Greece portal Iran portal Egypt portal War portal. The Macedonians were a Greek tribe. Historiography and scholarship agree that Alexander the Great was Greek. All three of these people had motive to have Philip murdered. Diodorus also referred to an advance force already present in Asia, which Polyaenus , in his Stratagems of War 5.
Mosul to Zirid, Volume 3. Primary sources Arrian Anabasis Alexandri The Campaigns of Alexander. Quintus Curtius Rufus Retrieved 28 April Retrieved 14 November Retrieved 6 December Babbitt, Frank Cole, ed. On the Fortune of Alexander. Retrieved 26 November John Selby Watson, translator.
Secondary sources Barnett, C. Baynes, Norman G An Introduction to East Roman Civilization. Moses in the Hieroglyphs. Retrieved 13 January Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy.
Wars of Alexander the Great - Wikipedia
The Reign of Alexander the Great. University of California Press. Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World. Morality and custom in ancient Greece. The Story of Civilization: The Life of Greece. Fermor, Patrick Leigh Travels in the Southern Peloponnese". New York Book Review: Mute dreams, blind owls, and dispersed knowledges: Persian poesis in the transnational circuitry. Fox, Robin Lane The Search for Alexander.
Gabriel, Richard A The Great Armies of Antiquity. Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: The Fall of Carthage. Most, Glenn W; Settis, Salvatore, eds. Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age. Sources for Alexander the Great. A History of Greece to BC. The language of the New Testament. Triumph and Tragedy in the Roman Republic. Holt, Frank Lee Culture, Identity and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity.
Luniya, Bhanwarlal Nathuram Life and Culture in Ancient India: From the Earliest Times to AD. Outsiders in the Greek cities in the fourth century BC. Retrieved 28 December Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Pratt, James Bissett The Pilgrimage of Buddhism and a Buddhist Pilgrimage. The Nature of Alexander the Great. International dictionary of historic places.