A clear shift is seen in these episodes from geological considerations to questions of paleontology, from issues of the age and the constitution of the earth, to issues of the nature and evolution of life. The shift is quite noticeable in Chapters , where substantial material was added in the edition. But in order for scientific experiment to be valid in this case, they would have to study this data in its own context , in its under-earth environment. The more alien the phenomena encountered, the more they seek, in increasingly sophisticated maneuvers, to relocate this data in familiar contexts.
The reader sees abundant promise of scientific discovery. That promise, however, is ever dissipated as the protagonists seek to convert unknown facts into known events. Here we have the complete flora of the Secondary Period of the World Here we have those humble garden plants in the first centuries of the Earth. No botanist has ever been invited to such a display! How can he say, in fact, that no botanist has ever confronted such a spectacle, when he himself, as a botanist, is looking at it face to face, and rather than emoting, should be asking questions about the nature of these plants.
One half of him stands in the presence of unknown flora. The other half is absent, as he travels in imagination to the familiar earth of garden plants, where of course no botanist has ever seen such plants. It is of course most unlikely that these are simply larger versions of known plants. Their real evolutionary differences should be investigated, but our two scientists never propose to do so. The professor dodges such questions by placing himself in two locations, and speaking from the one where the evidence is not at hand.
Axel, as he presents the situation, finds it all but impossible to keep Lidenbrock in the underground location, with his eye of the facts at hand.
For example, on examining some skeletal remains found in this soil, Axel notices an anomaly: But Lidenbrock soon after faces a more startling anomaly: Did it too fall down through a volcanic rift? In a letter to Charles Darwin, dated May 24, , J. I regard the position of all 4 as humiliating. Falconer is of his original opinion saving solely that no fraud was played how he reconciles this to his facts I cannot conceive. Busk believes a little more than F[alconer]. Carpenter more than either, and P[restwich] is ready to believe anything. The point here is not that the find was a fraud, or even that it was not the paradigm-shifting event it was thought to be.
It was current, but hardly revolutionary news at the time of the second edition of Voyage in , when large sections of this chapter and the two following chapters were added to the text: In Gabriel Mortillet founded his review devoted to this subject; and in the first of a series of scientific congresses devoted to such researches was held in Italy.
These investigations went on vigorously in all parts of France and spread rapidly to other countries. The explorations which Dupont began in , in the caves of Belgium, gave to the museum at Brussels eighty thousand flint implements, forty thousand bones of animals of the Quaternary period, and a number of human skulls and bones found mingled with these remains. Even so, Lidenbrock has before his eyes what he believes to be a complete skeleton of a quaternary man. His colleagues, given the state of contemporary paleontology, could at best hope to reconstitute such a specimen from fragments.
But once again, and now quite dramatically, Lidenbrock turns his back on his data and the mysteries of its being. At once, he transports himself, in a sort of waking dream, back to his classroom at the Johannaeum, where he now displays, in a formal lecture, his quaternary specimen to skeptical colleagues. If he first speaks in the conditional tense: He is actually there , speaking in the present tense.
Vous pouvez le voir, le toucher [The corpse is there!
You can see it, touch it]. In his imaginary trip to his familiar lecture hall, however, he now goes boldly where no man has gone, putting flesh on the creature whose bones he has never really examined. If Lidenbrock now asks hard questions, he is asking them in the wrong place, to an audience that has never seen their context: In a sense, in this scene, the reader is the only one who sees both worlds. Up to now, the two scientists at least asked questions about phenomena they encounter. They are either turned away from answering these questions by intervening events e.
Or they satisfy themselves with patently inadequate answers e. From this point on however in the narrative, our scientists no longer make even the minimal effort to describe phenomena, let alone analyze them. Axel comes across just such a field of bones. As such places were being found, one would expect his response to be more measured. His earlier lesson of total material darkness in the cavern seems lost on him here. Axel now appears to see the physical world in a totally new light, that of dream, in which he loses all ties to physical reality, himself no longer casting either shadow or image.
Now entering what seems a vast cluster of living tertiary vegetation, his mind no longer perceives the objects before his eyes. Instead, as in a waking dream, he sees these fossils turn into living plants before his very eyes. The categories of conventional science clearly no longer have relevance here: Axel question his senses as one does in a dream: Axel throws at this apparition the ultimate weapon of his cultural arsenal—Vergil.
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But this new Golden Age proves to be but a dream of a dream. Vergil proves powerless, and awe and wonder are now one with derangement of the senses.
Bernard, Claude 1813-1878
Immanis pecoris custos, immanior ipse. The word in Vergil Eclogue 5: We remember that it is Axel who is telling the story. Given his described relation to his uncle, it would seem tempting for him to reverse roles here, in what might be a totally imaginary scenario, and see the otherwise fearless explorer fleeing himself before the unknown. Usually Hans is physically present, if silent, at these moments of encounter with unknown phenomena. Here he is completely off-stage, waiting with the raft on the shore. But what did Hans think as these two come running up?
The reader, hoping to leave the realm of dream, now eager to see this underground world through more objective eyes, turns to Hans, but he is physically not there at all. Let us recapitulate here. Axel is his young, post-romantic pupil, equipped to ask scientific questions, but fearful of engaging the unknown, kept from doing so by the inadequacies of his humanist responses to the raw facts of res extensa , and, increasingly, by a growing propensity to cover physical reality with dreams.
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Verne has turned what seems a paradox into a stunning literary device: This in turn inspires the reader to rethink the situation, to demand a more thorough scientific approach to material fact. Hans has the makings of an experimental scientist. Indeed, he could not have achieved the results he gets without using an experimental method.
But all this activity is occluded by Axel. To the educated bourgeois Axel, Hans is a servant. And for Axel, once a servant, always a servant. For despite the fact that Hans renders extraordinary service to the two scientists on this hazardous journey, and even saves their lives on a number of occasions, Axel is still unable, even toward the end of their adventures, to see Hans as little more than a devoted servant: Hans first observes, then devises ways to guide his companions safely through seemingly impossible obstacles.
In order to do so, he certainly has to know a lot, and be willing to learn more. Despite this, Axel presents him as a blank sheet. Claude Bernard sees the awakening of the scientific method in mankind as a desire to pass from just seeing to the controlled activity of observation: But they never even come close to knowing the meanings of things. But, as Verne knew, if they were to pursue scientific inquiry to its end, we would have a story about doing science, not an adventure. This is where Hans enters the scene. An extraordinary statement leaps out at the reader of Claude Bernard: For essentially, they know little and do less.
To Axel, Hans is the man from Iceland, a barren land he describes as void of all traces of Western culture. Claude Bernard makes another important statement that could apply to Hans: Though Axel does not describe him doing so, Hans, to get the results he gets, has to study the landscape and draw significant experimental conclusions from analyzed data. This is their first encounter with the cold equations of nature, and Axel at once succumbs to laments of hopelessness: Je poussai un cri et je tombai.
I uttered a cry and fell down. Is Hans abandoning us? He then takes up a pick, and opens the wall, letting out a stream of hot water, that cools as it begins to flow downward. It will work its way down naturally and guide those who drink from it on the way]! Hans however is not in his native mountains here; it is not at all certain that what works on earth will work here in this new subterranean environment.
The fact here remains: Hans did discover water, hence had to conduct successful research in order to do so. Axel remains silent, and both scientists incurious. Axel has survived his fall to the seashore with life-threatening wounds, which Hans treats: Again, it is by no means a given that a medicine made of Icelandic herbs will work at all in this new environment. If Hans did concoct his salve from new, underground, ingredients, how did he do it?
Again the two scientists pass this off as unworthy of scientific investigation. His companions remain blind to it. The reader, however, asks the questions they do not ask, shares in the sense of wonder that surrounds Hans unseen scientific activity. Lidenbrock picks up a piece of fossil wood at his own feet , which is clearly not Icelandic wood, and tosses it in the water. The wood floats, Lidenbrock is satisfied.
Yet this could be just a lucky toss, heads or tails; the next piece may not have floated. Axel is not convinced, and discussion ends. The reader knows Hans certainly did not have any surtarbrandur at his disposal. He had to work with unknown types of fossil wood. He surely did not proceed by tossing samples into the water; he had to test each kind of fossil material for its properties: Can it be made waterproof? One thing is later made clear: Hans could not have used a material like surtarbrandur , as this is a combustible substance, and as such could never have withstood the intense heat of the ascent through Stromboli.
Axel describes Hans at work among piles of different kinds of wood: Hans is denied a voice to describe his method. The process of doing science is forever silenced by making it an image. The Riou engraving depicts Hans standing tall at the helm of his raft, holding steady, facing the unknown with resolve, while his two passengers, mere spectators, sit and look on. This iconic drawing, which presents varieties of scientific mankind as they face the sheer mystery of the physical unknown, will set the tone for other depictions of silent experimenters in later novels.
The rest of this narrative of scientific discovery—the rout from beneath the earth—reads like a frenzied dream. The voyagers come across what seems another Saknussemm rune, indicating a cave. They set off on their raft, only to find the passage blocked by a giant stone. Against all caution and logic, these geologists set off a charge of dynamite, which triggers a violent volcanic reaction that propels them out of the crater of Stromboli. At least it is logical, although the chances are that our heroes would not have survived such an ordeal.
But we should not be too critical on such points We need not dismiss the story as a dream—or a mere fiction. For it is doing something that only science fiction will later do: They find the familiar temperate zone, but only after they experience how precariously it sits, between the extremes of ice and rock Iceland and the fire of the subterranean forces. Life resumes as it was. Lidenbrock, who has seen nothing, made no scientific discoveries, is honored by the university.
Hans takes his pay, and goes home. The final wonder, however, is the fact that, after such an improbable voyage and an impossible return, they do return home. The voyagers to the center of the earth have encountered along the way the blank, a-human forces of nature— res extensa —the world of the cold equations, a world that, as Pascal said, has no knowledge , no awareness of us or our science and culture. The final wonder then of such a voyage is that, given the impossible odds of our ever relocating ourselves once we have experienced pure quantity and extension, we miraculously find a world to our measure.
As with the ascent through Stromboli, the physical universe throws everything it has at them, and yet they come through alive, to find a world theirs for the taking. But this does not explain the persistent encounters with the unknown in his work, from which the scientist who observes and experiments comes away empty handed.
Instead he gave voice to actual experimental science as it was being done in France. His was the practical voice of science in contradistinction to the Cartesian ghosts in the machine, that still, in complex ways, continue to haunt French criticism today. He is read because, in the wake of Claude Bernard, he infused scientific adventure with its sense of wonder.
Wells and his Time Machine. I use physics, he invents it]. But that said, what exactly is the scope of scientific investigation in The Time Machine? In terms of space, the Traveler remains confined to his laboratory, located in Richmond, in the Valley of the Thames. Over the span of time, things have changed radically around this three-dimensional locus. But why, once he is in the future, does he not leave this location just as he could do in his present , and explore other places and climes?
Instead, the parameters of his travel appear to be governed by the spatiotemporal stretching of Mrs. He perceives her, entering his laboratory as he leaves, as zooming forward. Upon his return, he sees her retrace her initial trajectory, arriving at the same place , the laboratory door, from which she began her journey back and forth in time.
Bernard, Claude [WorldCat Identities]
Conclusion, article de linguistique. Metadiscourse , Londres, New York, Continuum. Studies in Corpus Linguistics, An oriented object approach, dans J. English in academic and research settings , Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Lidil Revue de linguistique et de didactique des langues. Sommaire - Document suivant. Le lexique verbal du positionnement. In this article, we deal with the issue of person manifestation and stance through a study of verbs associated with a subject pronoun related to the author e. This corpus-based study compares introductions and conclusions of three disciplines of social and human sciences, linguistics, psychology and educational sciences.
However, a large variation can be observed within human sciences. It shows that this family of disciplines should not be considered as a homogeneous group. Dans certaines constructions infinitives exemple: Authorship in academic writing in English both carries a culturally constructed individualistic ideology and places the burden of responsibility for the truth of an assertion heavily on the shoulders of the writer.
Article de psychologie, conclusion. Avec quels outils et pour quoi faire?