Der Benedict Clan - Zwischen Hoffen und Bangen (German Edition)

The study of Gothic generally was combined with that of the elements of Comparative Philology. Considering that Low German resembles English much more closely than High Ger- man, the study of Low German in its various periods seemed to deserve special attention. Professor Collitz therefore made it a point to interpret, in each semester, to his students either portions of the Heliand or one of the Middle Low German dramas or extracts from Klaus Groth and Fritz Reuter. The Johns Hopkins Uni- versity probably was the only university in the United States where such courses in Low German and Frisian were offered with some regularity.

After the retirement in of Professor Henry Wood, provision had to be made for the courses formerly given by him. Professor Collitz took over the graduate course in Faust Part ii which had been on his repertory for advanced students at Bryn Mawr College. In , he attended, as a delegate of the Johns Hopkins Uni- versity, the centennial celebration of the University of Christiania Oslo. This occasion furnished an opportunity of visiting Den- mark, Sweden and Norway, and to make or renew the personal acquaintance with many Scandinavian scholars, such as Hj.

Moller, Holger Pedersen, W. Needless to add that the museums and libraries of the various Scandinavian capitals and Universities were a source to him of both enjoyment and instruction, and that the Codex Argenteus in Upsala was not overlooked. In the following year there appeared his monograph on the origin of the Germanic weak preterite Das schwache Prateritum und seine Vorgeschichte as the first volume of the series Hesperia. In , the University of Chicago conferred on him the honor- ary degree of L. He was one of the scholars to endorse the call extended by 6 Professors Leonard Bloomfield, G.

Bolling and Edgar H. Stur- tevant for the organization of the American Linguistic Society. After having attended the organization meeting held in New York in December , he was elected the first President of this Society for Among the festivities which marked the celebration, in , of the semicentennial anniversary of the Johns Hopkins University was a special meeting of the Germanic department to which the former students were invited.

At the commencement exercises of the next year an oil portrait of him, to which friends, colleagues, and former students had contributed, was presented to the University. At the age of seventy two, after having served for forty one years as a college and university Professor, he felt entitled to ask to be relieved from active duties and retired with the title of Professor Emeritus of Germanic Philology.

The 24th of November marked the fiftieth anniversary of the day when the degree of Ph. On this occasion the Philosophical Faculty of the Georgia Augusta sent Professor Collitz its congra- tulations together with a beautifully executed new diploma. Ueber die Annahme mehrerer grundsprachlicher a-Laute; BB. Register zu Bezzenbergers Beitragen zur Kunde der idg. Scherer, Zur Geschichte dor Deutschen Sprache, 2. Polnisclie Glossen aus dem Studies Scandinavian Studies and Notes. Das Verbum der Griechischen Sprache, vol. Meyer, Griechische Grammatik; BB. Ueber einc besondere Art Vedischer Composita; Abhand- lungen dcs 5.

Internationalcn Orient alistenkongr esses zu Berlin, Vol. II, 2, Homerisch eu-s und Vedisch dyii-s; KZ. Zur Eintcilung der Niederdcutschen Mundarten; Ndd. Sammlung dor Griechischen Dialektinschriften von J. Halfte, Heft i — 5, — 99, 2. Halfte, Heft i — 5, — Heft I, bearbeitet von R.

Meister, ; Heft 2, hrsg. Bechtel, ; Heft 3 und 4, hrsg. Hoffmann, — Sammlung der Gricchischen Dialekt-Inschriften. Das B im Theraeischen Alphabet; Hermes 21, Wahrung meines Rechtes; BB. Reprin- ted in BB. Die Herkunft des schwachen Pratcritums der German. Ueber Picks Vergleichendes Wortcrbuch der Indogerm. For additional comment on these roots and on the existence in the I. Zur Bildung des Instrumentals der waw-Stamme im Alt- indischen; ibid.

Two Modern German Etymologies i. The Vedic word ndvedas. Waldeckisches Worterbuch nebst Dialektproben, gesammclt von K. Im Auftrage des Vcrcin. XVI -f- - - ; Norden u. Inter- nationalen Orientalisten-Kongresses, Leiden , — Die Herkunft der a-Deklination ; BB. Die i-Deklination im Rigveda 8i; II. Die I-Deklination im Lateinischen 82 ; Exkurs: Die a- und i-Dcklination im Altiranischen 96; VI.

When this article was printed in BB. August Pick in , but owing to adverse circumstances had been received too late for publication in that volume. Sammlung der Griechischen Dialekt-Inschriften, hrsg. Zum vokalischen Auslautsgesetz der Germanischen Spra- chen; ibid. In the preface a review is given of recent contributions to Germanic Philology in the United States. An appendix contains a discussion of the Latin perfect tense and the Greek passive aorist in their relation to the weak preterit. A theory advanced here concerning the origin of the Greek passive aorist has recently found an able advocate in Adolf Walter in the Festschrift for W.

Aufgaben der Sprachwissenschaft, Heidelberg p. Bemerkungen zum Schwachen Prateritum; IF. Sammlung der Griechischen Dialektinschriften, hrsg. Abteilung SchluB der Sammlung. Goethe's use of vergakelt; MLN. The Greek noun TtQojuog; ibid. Note, An abstract only of a more comprehensive and more detailed treatise which remains to be pnblislied. In endeavoring to reconstruct the Primitive Germanic vocalism on the basis of the various Old Germanic languages the author arrived at the result that the common foundation is seen almost unaltered in Gothic.

The innovations generally ascribed to Gothic were inherited from Primitive Germanic, whereas numerous and fundamental changes took place afterwards in the West Germanic- Scandinavian period. Low German Ziegenftifi; ibid. The Last Days of Ulfila; ibid. The Systematization of Vowel-Sounds, or: Anglo-Saxon reef nan] ibid. Old Icelandic raun and reyna; Scand. Studies 6, 58 — Bezzenberger, Gottingen, , 8— Gotisch inn, inna MLN.

Old Norse elska and the Notion of Love; Scand. Studies 8, I— Geburtstage, — II, i — II, — An address delivered in on the occasion of the centenary of the 2nd edition of the first vol. It includes a mnemonic help for remembering the working of the Law. In Memoriam [James W. Bright]; Hesperia, Ergdnzungs- reihe, no. In his present opinion this preterit must be regarded as a complex formation, due to the combination of certain forms of the I. Pavry, London [To be published shortly]. Yima in den Gathas; III. Yima im Jiingeren Avesta; IV.

Yimo xmetd Djemsid und ved. Sammlung der Griecliischen Dialekt-Inschriften ; 4 vols. Schriften zur Germanischen Philologie; nos. Modern Language Notes; vols. Journal of English and Germanic Philo- logy; vols. American Journal of Philology; vols. In four of the eight passages parse is equivalent to Latin is qui, and the clause describes a person whose identity is unknown. Hopkins, for assistance in securing material on languages with which I have little familiarity.

The clauses of the first type, in which the antecedent of the relative is an unidentified person, find a close parallel in certain phrases in Latin; for example: Such sentences as these do not stand alone in Latin; there is a marked tendency to use neuter pronouns and pronominal adjectives to refer to persons who are not fully identified.

Cicero, Tusculanae Disputationes i. We may fairly conclude from a comparison of Umbrian and Latin that Primitive Italic employed neuter pronouns and pronominal adjectives to refer to persons in an indefinite way. In the Germanic languages of all periods neuter pronouns very frequently refer to persons, although examples are relatively few in the Gothic Bible on account of the imitation of Greek syntax which prevails there.

I shall illustrate principally with Old English. Sind das die Manner? Jetzt ist er gliicklich; wird er es aber immer sein? In one usage the employment of the neuter is extended to all adjectives in the Germanic languages; the neuter is used to combine masculine and feminine nouns, as is well illustrated in the early versions of Luke i. As we arc at present interested merely in the pronouns, I shall quote only the Gothic version in full. Norse, pau voro retlot becke. In Slavic the neuter singular of the pronoun is used to refer to a masculine or feminine noun of either number which has not been previously mentioned although this limitation is not consistently observed, and has no importance for our investi- gation.

A few examples will suffice. Russian, kto eto takoy? The interrogative pronoun, kio Church Slavonic kuto almost certainly represents a phrase of this type ; for ku- is Sanskrit has, and -to is Sanskrit tad. The relative pronoun also is used in the neuter singular to refer to a masculine singular or plural. Two examples from Church Slavonic follow. In the other Indo-European languages neuter pronouns and pronominal words do not often refer to persons; but there are a few scattering examples such as the following.

Except for three Umbrian examples, we have so far confined our attention to the use of a neuter pronoun referring to persons. In Germanic and Slavic there is no distinction in this matter between personal nouns and others, and elsewhere also neuter singular pronouns sometimes refer to impersonal masculine and feminine nouns or to neuters plural. Particularly important is the use of a neuter singular pronoun to govern a partitive genitive.

Cicero, Pra Sulla Cicero, Ad Familiares 2. Caesar, De Bello Gallico 3. Alfred, Cura Pastoralis 21, p. Sammlung Griechischer Dialektinschriften Plato, Symposium A: Aristophanes, Lysistrata , etc.: Sanskrit, Atharva Veda 7. In Hittite neuter singular pronouns are frequently used to refer to plural antecedents of either gender The following examples are typical. Keilschriiturkimden aus Boghazkoi Keilschrifttexte aus Boghazkoi 4. The similarity of the Hittite usage illustrated above to what we have found in the Indo- European languages makes it much more likely that the use of the neuter singular to refer to plural antecedents, personal or not, was an inherited construction.

This collective use of the neuter pronoun is obviously akin to Umbrian parse with a neuter plural antecedent, to Greek tovxo with two masculine plural antecedents Ar. The collective use of neuter pronouns may, then, confidently be ascribed to Pre-Indo-European as well as to Indo-European.

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The precise history of the other idioms which we have noticed the use of a neuter pronoun to 24 refer to a person in an indefinite way, or to refer to a masculine or feminine singular antecedent, and the use of a neuter plural to refer to persons of different sex cannot so easily be determined, although there is a fair probability that they all date from Indo- European times.

I do not maintain, however, that every usage here illustrated was inherited by the language which exhibits it. A secondary spread of the neuter construction is possible at any period. This is most familiarly illustrated by the well-known features of Pali and Prakrit which arc clearly pre- Sanskritic, or even pre-Vedic, in character.

A by no means exhaustive list is found in Wackernagel, Altindische Grammatik, I. The converse of this is the equally familiar fact that the oldest literature we have in India, that of the Veda, reveals not a few traces of the existence of dialects whether geographical or social in basis is a question which need not concern us now that were, as regards their phonology, essentially in the stage of Pali-Prakrit.

For examples I may refer again to Wackernagel, op, cit. I think, however, that the extent to which such dialectic phonology appears in the Veda has never been fully appreciated. A flood of new light will be thrown on this subject, as on almost every other aspect of Vedic grammar, by the corpus of Vedic Variants as revealed primarily by the Vedic Concordance , which was begun by the late Maurice Bloomfield, and several volumes of which prepared by him and the present writer arc now practic- ally ready for print The volume on Phonetics shows, among other things, a large mass of phonetic variations in the repeated mantras of Vedic literature which are of the same character as the phonetic changes characteristic of the Prakrit languages.

Obviously these have an important bearing on the question of dialects in ancient India. They seem, indeed, to show the preva- lence of dialectic tendencies in Vedic phonology to an extent hitherto unsuspected. The phonetic variants are not all uniform in character.

Only to a limited extent do they concern what may be called purely phonetic variations, as in the following: The name of this bird is otherwise always written pika; the KSA. No real lexical change can conceivably be involved On the other hand, in pumdn enani tanuta ut krnatti RV.: Bengali, Assamese diyd, Marathi etc. If Tedesco is right, and I am fully convinced that he is, this old IE. And in other, much more numerous cases, both forms are lexically defensible ; we have what are really two different words, standing in a certain phonetic relation to each other.

Nevertheless, the phonetic bearings of even the most intelligible of lexical variants of this sort are obvious, and obviously important for our problem. They occur in such large numbers that they furnish strong support for the purely phonetic variants of the type pika: It must further be emphasized that in no case, perhaps, do the variants point to change exclusively in one direction.

That is, the changes from surd to sonant, for instance, are flanked by a perhaps equal number of cases in which an older sonant is replaced by a surd. These are not to be regarded as cancelling each other. Both groups arc really evidence for the same tendency, namely, the change of surds to sonants — not the reverse. Broadly speaking, and in so far as it is purely phonetic in nature, the shift of sonant to surd is to be classed as what we call hyper- Sanskritism ; that is, a leaning backward to avoid dialectic pro- nunciation.

A quite natural result of this shyness was that it was sometimes overdone; just as, in our own time and land, a half- educated person may refer to the well-known capitalist as "Mr. Rockefellow", because he has painfully learned that the American dialectic word feller is vulgar and that in correct English one should say fellow instead. So, for instance, a word which contained an original sonant may be anomalously written with a surd, as: It is not impossible that some such dialect may have had some influence on Vedic speech; but it seems to me that the above explanation of these Vedic forms is more plausible.

Yet both editions of TA. In the rest of this brief report I shall limit myself, in general, to a few examples of the various types of what may reasonably be called purely phonetic variants. The list is, of course, far from exhaustive, even for them; and let it be remembered that they are supported in most cases by a very considerable number of variants which can be more or less defended lexically. The total mass of the materials is highly impressive; I must postpone their full presentation for another occasion.

Exact references are not given since they can easily be got in every case from the Vedic Concordance. The change from surd to sonant has already been illustrated. Dialectic in a broad sense, whether accurately to be called Pra- kritic or not, is the shift of voiced aspirates to A, as in the adjective kakuhdy 'Tall", exclusively found in the RV. This very word occurs in both its forms in one variant formula, see the Concordance under kakubham rupam etc. Von Schroeder emends the KSA.

It is well known that the Prakrit languages frequently replace dentals by linguals; and, contrariwise, some of them show the reverse tendency. We find in the Veda such variants as: This very word occurs in two other variants, the RV. The theory of Bartholomae IF. Tho relatively not numerous perhaps two dozen, including all sorts , the Vedic variants under this head are 29 specially interesting because genuine lexical influences are scanty; they are for the most part purely phonetic in character.

There are a number of cases of the familiar Prakritic change of d to j before y Wackernagel, p. And in this group we find a very interesting case of hyper- Sanskritism ; ava jydm iva dhanvanah AV. Similarly the change of y to j, and that of j to y, are both Prakritic in character Wackernagel, pp. The form praksdyatah is none too clear; the TB.

There are a number of instances of the familiar change of ks, ts, and ps to ch Wackernagel, p. It happens that lexical considerations play a part in most of them, but the following is a sample of a purely phonetic example, unusually complicated in character: The word means 'Tet- locks" of an animal ; its original form is unknown. Note also the Prakritic variation of r. On m for v and the reverse , which may be Prakritic, cf. The cases are few but interesting: The familiar cases of shift between b and v are certainly dialectic, whether properly to be called Prakritic or not; see Wackernagel, p.

Much uncertainty exists as to the writing of b and v thruout Sanskrit literary tradition, for reasons pointed out by Wackernagel. The variants are numerous, and fall into three groups of nearly equal size, in two of which b and v seem respectively to be original, while in the third there is no way of deciding with confidence. They are almost all purely phonetic; few genuine lexical changes arc included. School custom may have played a role here, alongside of true dialect; thus the Vajasaiieyin or White Yajurveda school shows a tendency to prefer v of course not rigorously carried thru.

It is always spelled with b in the RV. Yet at bottom they are of the same nature. The variants are numcrons and almost wholly phonetic in character, with scant lexical bearings. A single example must suffice: The r-form of this word is not recorded outside of RV. The thoro confusion of the sibilants in the middle Indie dialects Wackernagel, p. One or two out of many examples: Less numerous, but still not rare, are inter- changes between s and the other sibilants: The proper form is arsat; VS.

Traces of such a tendency seem to be found to a rather surprising extent in the Veda, altho to be sure they are always complicated by other considerations; that is, the variant forms are gram- matically or lexically explicable. Thus in the following example the evidently secondary reading of TS. There are similar cases in which alternative presence and absence of V and of the nasals may be similarly interpreted cf. No long vowel can be followed by more than one consonant, and the nasalization anusvdra, anundsika counts as a consonant; or, to put it otherwise, a nasalized vowel counts as a long vowel.

Where such combinations originally occurred, either the two consonants are simplified to one, or the long vowel is shortened. In the final outcome, after numerous analogical developments, it boils down to this, that Pali and Prakrit feel as phonetically equivalent the following three cases: The beginnings of this phonetic confusion seem to be present in certain Vedic variants.

For long vowel vs. Here there is no lexical variation ; we have forms of one and the same word. Whichever may be the older form cf. That is, in every case known to me, both forms of the variant are capable of independent lexical or morphological explanation. And yet, if we confront such 3 Or, we may phrase it thus: Long vowel, nasalized vowel, and long consonant are interchangeable. I do not believe that word-accent has anything to do with it cf. Of course, rayyai and also rayyd, once in the RV.

I do not question the propriety of this connexion, even tho the stem rayi is usually masculine and these are distinctively feminine forms ; other case- forms of rayi, such as rayih, are also occasionally feminine. If these variants were isolated, they would perhaps prove nothing for the phonetic tendency under consideration. But taken with the rest of this group, they do seem to me to suggest an urge in the direction of treating short vowel plus double consonant as the phonetic equivalent of long vowel plus single consonant.

Equivalent bases su-t with euphonic t after final short vowel of monosyllabic base and su. And others with the same interchange. Here noun-declension is concerned; apsardsu is from an a-stem apsard, parallel and secondary to apsaras. This, of course, does not exclude the likelihood of phonetic considerations, any more than in the other cases of this group. There are distinct traces among the variants of the very familiar Prakritic tendency to assimilate adjoining consonants; this is most marked with semi-vowels and liquids, which are easily assimilated to other consonants cf.

Jacobi's table of consonants in the order of their resistance to assimilation, Ausgew. A very numerous group of variants concerns interchanges between vocalic r and other vowels, a, i, and u; also r and con- sonantal r plus vowel; cf. It is well- known that Pali and most Prakrit dialects have no r; they most commonly substitute a, i, or u for older r.

And the modern Hindus pronounce r in Sanskrit words as ri in most parts of India in some regions, notably Maharastra, the vowel following the consonantal r has rather an w-coloring. I select a few instances which show this dialectal phonetics in the Veda most clearly cf. It is highly likely that samiddham is a Prakritism for samrddham, "plenteous", as suggested by Kirste on HG.

XXIII ; "inflamed" [root idh is incongruous in this context despite the etymological meaning of tejas. Here we have a curious and most interesting hyper-Sanskritism in MS. All the terms refer to Indra, one of whose regular epithets is gotra-bhid, "splitter of the cow-pens clouds or mountains? It can only be a pedantic substitution for gotrabhid, apparently under the sciolistic assumption that i stood for r; at any rate, the alteration can scarcely be understood except in the light of this dialectal phone- tics. For gotra-bhrd is hardly capable of intelligent interpretation. The adverb trsu is the only word which can be involved here.

There are very many variants in which long diphthongs ai, au interchange with the corresponding short diphthongs e, o. In most of these morphological matters are concerned. But in a few, at least, it appears that the shift is purely phonetic, and therefore belongs with the well-known universal law of Pali-Prakrit by which ai and au are everywhere reduced: The word is otherwise kaivarta, sukurlrd svaupasd VS. Allied to these are a number of interesting cases in which we seem clearly to have Prakritic reduction of aya to e, and ava to 0 Bloomfield, AJP.

The insertion of an epenthetic vowel, generally i, between two consonants, usually a liquid and a sibilant or h, is likewise to be regarded as a Prakritism, tho fairly wide-spread in Sanskrit cf. It is found in not a few Vedic variants, as in this sigmatic aorist from the root pr, ''cross'': Note that the meter is against the inserted vowel.

Read parisad in both occurrences in MS. Granted that many, and under some rubrics even most, of them may be explained lexically or morphologic- ally: The principle is, indeed, far from being a new discovery, as has been indicated. But it has never been illustrated so extensively as it will be in the Vedic Variants; and some of the rubrics here included are presented for the first time in Vedic phonology.

The special character of the illustrations, namely the occurrence of double forms of each variant, with and without Prakritic phonology, makes them especially valuable and interesting. The cases of hyper- Sanskrit ism are perhaps the most interesting of all, as pointing to a rather definite consciousness, on the part of the handlers of the texts, of the antithesis between the phonology of the high speech and that of the popular dialects.

I have protested against this in Language, IV, pp. Some apparent similarities I have accounted for as being relics of a Magadhan original of which the Pali canon is a transformation. It should be noted that Ardhamagadhi is so much later than Pali that a good deal of material can not be relied upon, for the changes may be secondary, and some semi-tatsamas may have crept in; also influence of Maharastri as the Prakrit literary language par excellence is also to be reckoned with.

I therefore only list a few differences such as are quite convincing: Sanskrit tasmin ; Amg. I overlooked some evidence from the middle of the third century B. Biihler sec also pp. The patOam of Ptolemy, also corroborates my view. Charpentier, ]RAS, , p. Ivii will not satisfy the phonetic requi- rements of the dialects of the Asokan inscriptions.

I now hasten to observe that Turner, Bull 5. Minor additions have been made from time to time, and probably will continue to be made. The following forms not roots are listed as occuring only in Classical Sanskrit; they occur in the Bombay edition of the Ramayana of I may add the infinitive gaditum gad listed by Whitney as occiiring in Classical Sanskrit only, occurs in a manuscript of the Ramayana in the British Museum, but I have unfortunately mislaid the exact reference.

The form llyati is given as occuring in tlie Upanishads and Classical Sanskrit only: Listed as occuring but once in the Sutras is jigdhlre: The gerundive patitvd, listed as AV.

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Under kup cukopa is listed as U. It is found in the Bhagavata Purana at iv. The active perfect of krus is listed as being peculiar to Epic Sanskrit: Under smr sasmdra is given as E. Under sah the middle perfect sehe is given as authorized by native grammarians but non-quotable ; the third person pi. The infinitive spardhitum is listed as AV. Bombay at 8. Under i pat the aorist apdti is listed as B.

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The perfect mamdda under 7 nad is given as V. The infinitive sahsitum is listed as E. The aorist asevista under sev is listed as non-quotable though authorized by the native grammarians; the 3 pers. The commentator Mallinatha correctly explains the form as sevater luio. The gerund charditvd is given as authorized by the native grammarians but non-quotable: It occurs in the Vayu Purana at This is no doubt correct; cf.

Professor Bloomfield cited a Menomini correspondent which I have unfor- tunately misplaced 6. Fox -fd-- Years ago Jones construed -td- as an inanimate copula; and I have followed him in this. Recently Bloomfield has given the form as -eta-. Decisive proof can only be given when the condi- tions in other Central Algonquian languages are known, excluding Sauk and Kickapoo which are so close to Fox. If -etd- is historic- ally correct then we must assume contraction of Ae to and contraction of oe to 0.

A non- Algonquian trait of Arapaho. As I stated years ago Arapaho is a very divergent Algonquian language ; and I still adhere to this view. I now proceed to list a feature which can not be duplicated so far as I know and I have had several years of experience with Algonquian languages in any other Algonquian language, and that is infixation within the primary stem. The complicated phonetic shifts to which I have alluded are almost all conditioned by the quality of ad- jacent vowels, palatization being extremely common.

Thus it happens words which are really Algonquian may be enormously disguised, e. Further explanations would involve too much space. To an Indo-Europeanist such a question may seem superfluous; it is not to an Americanist: The semantic relations do not seem to me to have been described satisfactorily, and perhaps this is the reason that there is still difference of opinion about the exact delimitation of the group. The matter may also have a more general interest ; for I shall assume a connection not considered under the sense of smell by Bechtel in his work Ueher die Bezeichnungen dcr sinnlichcn Wahrnchmungcn in den idg, Sprachen, Weimar, So also does the connection to be suggested with GfxaQayiod.

First the Homeric usage. The words are used of loud and frightful sounds emitted by human organs of speech: In words that are reactions to such stimuli a shift of meaning can come about in one of two ways, i The emotional element may become so far predominant that the sense element becomes indifferent, and the word is then associated with any stimulus that produces such an emotion. As a result of such processes most of the other Homeric examples are in a transitional stage, and their precise meaning cannot be determined.

Either meaning will suit in either passage ; a preference will depend in reality on whether one likes reiteration or contrast. Both slayers and slain may have their epithets either from the same or from different sense spheres — contrast or parallelism again. Perhaps it is worth noting also that the only part of the body to which these adjectives are applied is that from which the voice comes.

Bechtel, Lexilogus — These may be cases in which the change has advanced considerably; and with them may be put: Both have, to be sure, to do with arms, but arms of such a nature that an epithet derived from the noise they make is hardly to be expected. Clear evidence for the completed change is found in but three passages ; one connecting with the use of armor, another like B used of a serpent, and the third textually uncertain.

On account of the etymological connection with Skt. We should expect it to have been used of the sea and of thunder, which would account for the connotation of terror that it acquired. The association is evidenced as early as the c Cf. Aristophanes, Birds ; Nicander, Th. It gives also the semantic link between aixegdaXtoQ and a group of Balto- Slavic words, that may be represented by Lith. Laut- u, Formenlehre I should prefer to consider the possibility that within Indo-European itself, under certain conditions at least, -rdn- became -m-; for aixeghvog could easily be a new formation in Greek.

For the change of meaning, contrast dialectic Carinthian Schass 47 The change of meaning here assumed for Indo-European may be parallelled perhaps in Greek. Denn so vieles auch im einzelnen daruber bereits richtig gesagt scin mag, eine einleuchtende Gesamtlosung der Aufgabe steht meiner Ueberzeugung nach doch noch aus. Zeugnis dafiir ist mir, neben den Unertraglichkeiten in Stil und Gedanken- forni, mit denen man uns auch hier oftcr nicht verschont hat, vor allem die Unsprechbarkeit samtlicher bisher vor- geschlagener Textformcn, d. DaB das so ist, erklart sich leicht aus der Art, wie man beim Entziffern und Deuten von Inschriften iiberhaupt vorzugehen pflegt.

Denn ganz natiirlich halt man bei solcher Arbeit zunachst nach Buchstabengruppen Umschau, die einem einen Anhalt fiir die weitere Deutung zu geben scheinen. Kent, Language 2 , ff. Streitberg; Stand und Aufgaben der Sprachwissenschaft. Da liegt eben eine Liicke in dem herkommlichen Verfahren, die einmal ausgefiillt werden mu6, damit eine neue, erganzende Kontrolle einsetzen kann. Ich halte cs demnach auch nur fiir angemessen, beispielsweise auch bei der Behandlung der Duenos- inschrift das Arbeitsverfahren einmal direkt umzukehren, d.

Die dabci zu be- waltigende Arbeit ist, nach einiger Voriibung, gar nicht so schwer, wie manche zu denken scheinen: Darin markieren die Zeichen " einerseits die Ton- s t e 1 1 e n bzw. Indogerm, Forschungen 43, ff. Auch mag es nicht unangezeigt sein, einmal auf die vor Jahren an eiuem freilich etwas versteckten Orte KongreB fiir Aesthetik und allgemcine Kunst- wissenschaft. Die gesperrt gesetzten Wbrter jo", qo'i und due' nos, due'noi verlangen ferner einen gewissen im Grunde antithetischen Nachdruck, auch miissen sie so gesprochen werden, daB man eine gegenseitige Beziehung zwischen ihnen herausfiihlt.

Gra- phische Aufnahmen, die einseitig nur die Schwingungszahlen aus dem Komplex herauszuziehen vermogcn, konnen daher auch nichts gegen die vom Menschen erapfundenc melodischc Abstufung dcr Rede bcwcisen. Wohl aber haben wir fur diese ein sehr bcqucmes Kontrollmittel in den durch lockeres Auflegen einer Fingcrspitze auf die Vorderzunge zu verfolgenden Zungenbewc- g u n g e n beiin Sprechen.

Bei jedem Steigton speziell schnellt die Zungen- spitze innerhalb dcr bctreffenden Silbe energisch nach dem Vordergaumen hinauf, beim F a 1 1 1 o n schiebt sie sich da sie sich nicht wesentlich senken kann unter dem kontrollicrenden Finger in etwas absteigendem Bogen nach vorn zu hinweg, so den hintercn Resonanzraum der Mundhohle vergroBernd und dadurch die Klangfarbe verdunkelnd.

Dieser einfache Versuch wird bei geniigender Sorgfalt der Ausfiihrung niemand im Zweifel lassen: Wenn man sich den Text der Inschrift nach diesen Vor- schriften frischweg vorspricht und dazu bci jedem der gesetzten Tonzeichen versuchsweise einmal T a k t schlagt, so wird man wohl alsbald bemerken, daB das Ganze in V c r s e n abgefaBt ist. Bei naherer Priifung mit Hilfe der von mir cingefuhrten sog. Das Wesentliche der ganzen Versart ist die Anwendung des geraden sei es steigenden, sci 2.

Das folgt schon aus der Verschiedenheit ihrcr Pcrsonalkurven ZiiW. Aka- demie der Wiss. Hieriiber werde ich erst spater im Zusammenhang handeln konnen. Was mogen denn aber die bier gemutmaBten drei Leute mit ibrcm Produkt und ibrer Zusammenarbeit an ibm gewollt baben? Icb glaubc, das ist leicbt zu seben: DaB es obnc einen solcben lenkenden Gott nicbt immer glatt geben wiirde, dessen sind die braven Topfer sicber: Und sie sind aucb darin ebrlicbe und woblgesinnte Leute, daB sie wiinscben, nur ein braver Liebbaber moge sicb der gewiinscbten Wirkung des GefaBes zu erfreuen baben: Das ist ein ganz einfacber, und aucb ein wobl verstandlicber Gedankengang.

Ich glaube demnach den Text nun etwa folgendermafien umschreiben zu kSnnen: A D a r a u f scliaue der Gott, w e in er mich zufiihre! B Wenn dir ein Magdlein nicht hold ist, so heifit er [namlich der Gott] dich, von uns [namlich den drei Topfchen dcs resamtgefaBes] Gebrauch machen, um Frieden fur euch zu gewinnen, C Ein Braver hat mich geinacht, daO ich einem B r a v e n zu Handen komme: Oder lateinisch; A Eo visat deus, c u i me mittat, — B Ni ni tc comis virgo siot, ast te [sc.

Das klingt ja nun wohl im ganzen zicmlich glatt und ein- leuchtend, aber man wird sich doch fragen mtissen, ob es auch moglich ist, diesen Sinn sprachlich aus dem lieraus zu gewinnen, was dasteht. Ich muB also dariiber noch einiges anfiigen. Die beiden Eingangswortc konnen, wie in Nr. Auch muB eine psychisch-syntaktische Bindung zwischen jo und veisat bestehen bzw. Beides gewinnt man sofort, wenn man nur das jo als eine durch sog. Auf germanischem Boden ist der hier gemeinte Akzentumsprung ja z. Aus dem Lateinischen selbst sowie aus dem Umbrischen s.

Planta 2, f. Planta 2, ff. Die annoch bestehenden Schwierigkeiten im Absatz B losen sich, wie mir scheint, in befriedigender Weise, wenn man aus der Buchstabenfolge astednoisiopetoitesiai zunachst das Stuck iopet als dreisilbig zu sprechendes altlat. Das ]ubet fordert dann weiter einen abhangigen Infinitiv hintcr sich, und der steht da, wenn man das folgende oitesiai unzertrennt laBt. Etwas schwieriger bleibt syn- taktisch das folgende pdkdri vois, mag man nun pdkdri aktivisch Oder passivisch fassen. Zur Endung -esiai vergleiche man fiberdies noch das altindische -ddhydi wie in iyddhydi usw.

Nun aber "der' viel beanstandete "R h o t a z i s m u s' in pdkdri gegen oitesiai mit unverandertem s? Ich glaube, um den braucht man sich nur so lange Sorge zu machen, als man es ffir gestattet halten wird, sich auch beim Latein nicht um die Ein- wirkung der verschiedenen Intonationsarten auf die Ausgestaltung der Wortkorper zu kfimmern. Denn alles hier bisher Zweifelhafte wird alsbald deutlich, wenn man nur das Verhaltnis der in Frage kommenden s und r zu den Steig- und Falltonen der einzclnen Belegstellen ins Auge faBt.

So konnen wir gleich als Ausgangs- punkt ffir weitcrc Betrachtung feststellen, daB unscr oite'siai auf der Silbe e' s einen Steigton tragt, die Form pdkd'ri aber auf dem a'r einen Fallton. Ebenso unbestreitbar ist, daB die sckun- daren r aus s frfiherer wie spaterer Zeit wenigstcns soweit ich das habc verfolgen konnen stcts auf einen Fallton folgen, und um- gekehrt die unveranderten s der "vorrhotazistischen Zeit' ebenso wie die Dauer-s der stehcnden "Ausnahmsworter' wie cdsa, miser, caesaries, ndsus u.

DaB dem Wechsel von s: Die Inschrift des Cippus Abellanus v. Das kann man speziell wieder an den ebenfalls metrischen Texten des altumbrischen Teiles der I g u - vinischenTafeln v. Sievers, Zur englischen Lautgeschichte S. Im A u s 1 a u t hat sich bekanntlich, auch schon im A 1 1 - umbrischen, einc d r e i f a c h verschiedene Behandlung des urspriinglichen -s herausgcbildet. Auch diese richtet sich nach der Klangbesonderheit der einzelnen Belegstellen, und diese Be- sonderheiten hangen ihrerseits wieder von den deklamatorischen Gewohnheiten odcr Neigungen der einzelnen Verfasserpersonlich- keiten ab.

Das -s blcibt namlich entweder a erhalten, oder es ist b geschwunden, oder c durch r ersetzt. In dem Wechsel der verschiedenen Wortausgange herrscht aber, nach der Ueberliefe- rung gemessen, keineswegs das sinnlose Durcheinander, das man allgemein anzunehmen beliebt, sondern: Planta doch zu osk. Planta 2, Nr, DaB es sich bei dieser Regelung in der Tat mindestens zum guten Toil nur um Stilistisch-Deklamatorisches handelt, kann man besonders deutlich daraus ersehen, daB auch stehende Formeln je nach dem klanglichen Zusammenhang, in dem sie erscheinen, intonatorisch wie lautlich verschiedcn bchandelt werden konnen.

Jede der drei Formen paBt klang- lich an die Stelle, wo sie geschrieben steht: Weitere Beispiele aus dem Gebiet der Deklination anzu- fiihren eriibrigt sich wohl, da die Regel ausnahmslos zu verlaufen scheint und man sich die Belegc muhelos aus den ausfuhrlichen Listen von v.

Aber aus dem an sich begreiflicherweise viel sparlicher vertretenen Verbal- gebiet sei wenigstens die dem lat. Forschungen 45, ff. DaB aber die kiirzeren Formen mit bloBem I in der Endung mindestens konjunktivisch sein konnen, zeigt die deutliche 3, Sing. Sie erscheint in folgenden Gestalten: Planta 2, und kupifidja' i Die Entschei- dung ist natiirlich auch fiir die chronologische Fragc wichtig, ich kann aber an dieser Stelle nicht naher darauf eingehen.

Ich begniige mich also damit, zu sagen, daB mir nach den begleitenden Umstanden die zweite Alternative wahrscheinlicher vorkommt als die erste. Auch das Lateinische zeigt nun wieder ganz ahnliche Erscheinungen. DaB auch dort das -m nur nach Fallton abfallt, kann ein Blick z.

Ja selbst aus der spateren Literatur laBt sich die einstige Giiltigkeit der Regel noch demonstrieren an der Hand der Verschmelzungsformen mit es, est. Ich habe daraufhin z. Dagegen ist die Endung -W5 cbenso konstant steig tonig, wcnn keine kiirzende Vcrschmelzung eintritt: Auch die -a der F e m i n i n- formen bleiben trotz dcr Vcrschmelzung wie das -um dcr Neutra steigtonig: Dazu halte man das mannliche Sosia's und beliebigc andere Verschmelzungsformen mit Steigton, wie quid-, qiiisqitam'st Steigtonig bleiben bei der Vcrschmelzung auch die us, die nicht dem Nom.

Sing, von o-Stammen angehoren: Da also tatsachlich nur bei den eben genannten Nom. Sing, bei der Verschmelzung ein Fallton eintritt, wahrend bei Nicht- verschmelzung auch deren -us Steigton behalt, so bleibt wirklich nichts anderes iibrig, als von eincr alten, d. Wie das steigtonige onus' t nebst Genossen zeigt, hat also Sommer, Krit. Es stimmt ferner wieder zur Hauptregel, daB in Fallen mit mehrsilbiger Senkung wic quibus me deceat Amph. Es ist also wirklich nicht abzusehen, warum nicht auch z. Auch das falltonige pote's t wiirde zur Regel stimmen: Auf Zweifclhaftercs mdchte ich hier nicht eingehcn.

In der intonationsbedingten Erweichung eines inneren und dem intonationsbedingten A b f a 1 1 eines schlieBenden s gehen also die altitalischen Hauptsprachen auch die Klein- sprachen liefern noch einiges einschlagende Material in solchcr Ausdehnung zusammen, daB man schwer glauben kann, cs handle sich hier nicht um bereits uritalische Prozesse, deren Wirkungen nur hernach durch Ausgleichungen mannigfacher Art wieder uniibersichtlicher gemacht wurden. EinigermaBen abseits steht nur das Umbrische mit seinem bereits in altumbrischer Zeit beginnenden auslautenden hakentonigen -r oben Nr.

Damit kann ich denn endlich wieder zum Ausgangspunkt dieser langen Digression zuriickkehren. Wenn namlich im Oski- schen je nach der Intonation innercs s und inneres z, im Umbri- schen inneres s und inneres r nebeneinander stehen konnten, so weiB ich nicht, warum ein solches Nebeneinander das ja akzen- tisch geschiitzt war im Lateinischen unmoglich gewesen sein soil. Fiir meine Auffassung der Geschichte des 'Rhotazismus' vertragen sich also auch das oite'siai und das pdkd'ri unserer Duenosinschrift auf das beste miteinander. Zu dem Abschnitt C der Inschrift sind nur noch ein paar Worte zu sagen.

Das 0 von manom gegeniiber gemeinlat. Das zwischen en und einom formelgemaB akzentisch eingeklemmte Wort sinkt namlich bis zum Schlusse des e, um dann in dem m wieder anzusteigen das nun als steigtonig erhalten bleibt. In einom ich dann syn- taktisch wieder einen an den Supinumgebrauch erinnernden Infinitiv des Zieles wie oben in pdkdri, Nr. Neben den oskisch-umbrischen ebenfalls akkusativischen Infinitiven auf -nm scheint mir die Annahmc besonders unbedenklich, unser ei-no-m konne ein Rest einer einst weiter verbreiteten Gattung von Infinitiven sein, der aus der Zeit vor der groQen Neuregelung des lateinischen Infinitiv- wesens stammt.

Ich mdchte also glauben und hoffen, daB die im Vorstehenden verfochtene Deutung der Duenosinschrift auch der sprachlichen Formkritik gegeniiber werde standhalten konnen. He also noticed that Cams was frequently found in the Celtic provinces, and therefore concluded that Lucretius was probably a Celt of freedman standing. Now that several indices of the Corpus have appeared so that any one might have discovered that Marx' statements were erroneous it is a pity that the standard reference books continue to repeat and even to exaggerate these guesses.

Finally, the article on Cams in the great Thesaurus Linguae Latinae says ante aetatem imp, non nisi serv, vel lib,, cf. Marx, Now let us examine the facts in detail. The first edition of vol. I of the Corpus containing the republican Latin inscriptions gave one instance of Cams no. However the inscription had no right to a place in that volume because its date is 32 A. So much for the slave name of Carus in republican times.

We have no instance of it. The 1 Nezie Jahrh, , p. The fact is that nine-tenths of the well-known cognomina are not vouched for at all in republican records. Marx's statement regarding the rarity of this cognomen among citizens of the republic was, therefore, hardly worth repeating. The fact is that, leaving aside the case of Lucretius, we have found it in republican times only in Livy 39, 55, T.

Aebutius Cams, a senator where it is doubtful because the name seems to reappear as Aebutius Pams in 42, 4, according to the Vienna ms. From this evidence we can only say that there was a Celtic name which Appian transliterated into Karos, that the Latin name Cams was in good standing in central Italy before there is any question of Celtic nomenclature there, and that perhaps a senator of the Catonian epoch bore the cognomen.

During the empire, whence most of our inscriptions come, the cognomen is found in all strata of society. The Emperor Cams is late, but before his day there were L. Aemilius Cams consul about 50 A. Junius Cams a senator , C. The index of nomina of C. VI, where the cognomen is found about fifty times, will add to the above several centurians and praetorians of respectable standing ; ; 32 , VI, 14; 32 , n, 5; 32 ; 37 , 1 , Among the forty that cannot be classified only two are distinctly proved to be freedmen 20 , 16 , though several of the others appear to be related to freedmen, but are clearly one or two removes from the class.

And as it is a well known fact that while freedmen were required to keep their servile cognomina, the children of freedmen were very apt to be given respectable cognomina so that they might have a fair chance at civic and social opportunity. The occurrence of the name Cams in this latter group does not support the Marxian hypothesis. One has only to compare the use of such servile names as Amandus, Ampliatus, Auctus cf. A good place to test the tone and quality of names is the second part of the sixth volume of C. In examining the first two thousand inscriptions in that volume we find the favorite slave names recurring by scores while Cams occurs only once VI and then in the instance of a son of an imperial freedman.

In short no one who is familiar with Latin inscriptions could possibly have accepted the Marxian statement. So far is Carus from being a cognomen of servile association that it is one of the most respectable of names outside of the distinctly senatorial group. There is no doubt that there was a Celtic name that resembled Caros and that it occurs on Celtic headstones.

But the first occurrence of the name in Italy is too early to attribute to Celtic origins. Furthermore, the frequent use of it as a designation of children in Italy shows that it was felt as a kosename at Rome in many instances. Carus in fact is found as a name all over the Latin part of the empire and is just about as frequent on the inscriptions of Rome and Italy as in Gaul and Spain. There is not the slightest ground for assuming that Lucretius had any Celtic connections.

It must be because of the Marxian hypothesis that several scholars, especially countrymen of Marx, have assumed that Lucretius was of humble origin and immediately tried to prove that he was unusually deferential in his address to Memmius. The cognomen is surprisingly rare in Cisalpine Gaul whence Marx suggests that Lucretius might have come. See also Giri, Bull. Class, — ii and Tol- kiehn, in Woch. Once we are rid of the prejudices created by the conjectures of Marx I think that no reader of Lucretius will fail to see that the poet speaks like a free citizen conscious of an honorable position in society and that he addresses Memmius as an equal.

During the progress of this study, I was pleased Vivant qui ante nos nostra dixerunt! Mahly in the Zeitschrift fiir die osterreichischen Gymnasien, 38, Hector wished to drag away the naked body of Patroclus from the plain, in order to give it to the dogs of Troy II. This place, in the case of Priam, was a sequestered limen of his palace. Illustrations could be multiplied as to the indifferent use or omission of the preposition in in such constructions, e. A scribe, accustomed to litore in the fifth foot, would very easily substitute it in place of limine, though I believe that the current reading litore in our line, 2, , is found in all standard manuscripts and editions.

Precisely this easy substitution is shown in line 8, The strongest argument for the proposed amendment lies in the fact that the whole action connected with the death of Priam revolves continually about the word limen. Aeneas, with his valiant companions, while fighting in burning Troy, is drawn, by the vehemence of the conflict there, to the palace of Priam, The entrance is occupied by attacking Greeks, who have formed a testudo 2, The more particular description begins with line Limen erat caecaeque fores et pervius usus.

The raging Pyrrhus is discovered: He proceeds in his murderous course Those in the royal apartments are terror-stricken by this invasion In describing these events to Dido, Aeneas relates f. Priam, driven to fury by the destruction of the city f. Pyrrhus butchers him, after slaying his son Polites. In view of all these considerations, there seem to be convincing reasons for reading, at the close of this scene: The foun- dations of our present understanding of Indo-European phonology have been obtained in two great strides.

More than half a century later, in , Hermann Collitz, through his discovery of the Palatal Law gave the proof that the Indo-European vowel system was closely akin to that of early Greek and Latin, while the Indo- Iranian vowels, which had been supposed to represent the primi- tive Indo-European condition, were shown to be a secondary development. In regard to both sound systems, the Germanic languages, especially in their earlier periods, present a network of variations which seem kaleidoscopic at first consideration, but on closer analysis follow more or less clearly distinguishable directions of the t3ipe for which Sapir has coined the fortunate term "Drift.

A mere tabulation of those facts that are accepted by the majority of linguists in the Germanic field reveals for the development of the Germanic vowels a consistent continuity that is no less amazing than that of the Germanic consonants. To state the external facts of the drift in concrete tenns is a relatively easy matter; to explain its meaning or cause is difficult and may at the present stage of linguistic understanding be even impossible. In principle, therefore, it excludes changes that depend on neighbouring sounds, but this is not and should not be, carried through with complete consistency.

Also, theoretically the term should not take into account later changes in the individual Germanic languages. But we are justified in including certain indications of a continuation of the trend into historical times. German the contrasts between the various low-vowels [a, a, je] are generally less marked than those between front and back mid-vowels and between front and back high-vowels, and that for certain practical purposes it is expedient, but hardly more than that, to sum up all low vowels in the convenient although rather vague symbol [a].

The latter merely goes to the other extreme of standardization, assigning to the low vowels the same latitude that is given to the high vowels. The writer has attempted to compromise between these extremes in his Sounds and History of the German Language p. His x-ray photographs of vowel articulations are 73 beyond comparison the clearest and most reliable that have ever been published; in fact, most similar attempts dwindle into insignificance before Russell's attainments. But I am unable to reconcile his photographs and his tables, as well with his conclusions.

The relatively greater altitude of the latter diagram possibly indicates an extreme articulation, for the purpose of the experiment, but I am by no means sure on that point; several other interpretations are possible. His discoveries in regard to the movements of the epiglottis, velum, and back of the tongue are to a large extent new contributions of the greatest value, but I cannot admit that these factors eliminate the concept of points of articulation.

All of these elements of articulation constitute an interlocking complex, although up to a certain degree each element may vary independently from the others. The point of articulation is, of course, not the cause of any given vowel articulation but merely its most characteristic symptom. Taken alone, it means nothing. It is obviously true, as Russell points out, that any vowel can be articulated with a virtually flat tongue.

It is also true, I might add, that variations of the angle of the jaws are by no means indispensable; many men are in the habit of speaking while holding a pipe firmly between their teeth, thus insuring an invariable angle of the jaws. All of this does not in the least controvert the fact that in average articulation each vowel family ranges within a given sphere of tongue elevation, which in a diagram such as that of Bremer or of the IPA may quite legiti- mately be indicated as a point of articulation.

That these spheres of articulation are apt to intersect is no proof to the contrary. I consider it therefore justified and even necessary to retain in the present analysis the concept and general scheme of the vowel triangle, all the more since in the investigation of earlier periods of the language it is obviously impossible in most cases to define the tongue positions with the accuracy of a contemporary X-ray picture. The general trend of vowel changes is quite certain nevertheless. There exists a striking parallelism between the quantity of Indo-European and Germanic vowels and the Germanic Vowel Shift, all the more striking since it presents a sharp contrast to similar groups of phonetic changes in other Indo-European languages.

Vischer names this plaster patience. McGraw-Hill, , Ia, Iiae, 35, 4, 2, p. Lutheran consolation for bereaved parents 29 of natural wit, but hide these maxims in the interior of your memory and make them familiar to yourself with great study; so that, just as the expert doctors are accustomed to do, in whatever place or time a sickness befalls you requiring immediate attention, you may have, so to speak, the remedies written in your mind. But in submitting to the sanctioned Lutheran treatment, parents were expected to observe certain mourning conventions.

The books and preaching manuals certainly do not outlaw expressions of sorrow. He bases his Trostschrifft on Ecclesiasticus 38, a central passage for understanding Lutheran prescriptions about mourning. And from his opening point it is clear that he does not merely permit parents to mourn their children, but enjoins them to do so: Izzi, , I.

Nicolaus Knorr, , fo. He refers to Genesis Dann also saget Syrach am But his tears were not a sign of weakness. Crispin Scharffenberg, , fos. Avr — v emphasis in original publication. The references are to Ecclesiasticus Biijr , Cv , and Ciijv. Lutheran consolation for bereaved parents 31 sorrow, and not despair or lack of faith. Women had slightly more leeway when it came to grieving than men. Popular Galenic theory held that they were wetter and colder, which meant that they were physically more disposed to weeping.

But that less was expected of them is shown by the fact that women who behave stoically are praised as rare examples and used to shame the men who do not live up to the ideal. Firstly, it is pagan behaviour and exposes a lack of faith in the doctrines of the resurrection and eternal life. Sister Thomas Aquinas Goggin, 2 vols. Homilies 1— 47, II: Fvv and Walther, Trost: Hans Wolrab, , fo. This point is made by Seneca in his letter of consolation and rebuke to Marcia, a mother who was unable to relinquish her pathological mourning for her son: David tells his astonished servants that it is futile to lament what cannot be changed: But the emphasis on it also betrays a concern with social and religious decorum, which set the bounds of grief so that it could not threaten social stability, undermine doctrinal certainties, or be seen to challenge the inscrutable will of God.

Cited in Walther, Trost: Aiijv , and Trost der Eltern, fo. Lutheran consolation for bereaved parents 33 spiritual perspective. Arguments that support this are discussed at length in the consolation books. Death spares the children further physical suffering and spiritual struggles. They no longer toil in Egyptian bondage, where they suffered pain and fear. They have also been rescued from the Babylonian captivity of the world, where heretics seek to pollute the righteous.

Cain, Ham, the sons of Eli, Amnon, and Absalom. Vischer envisages God as a loving father who removes his child from the scene of impending danger: And the analogy draws the sting from death, equating it with sleep in common with Lutheran theology, as we shall see below. The consolation writers consolidate their arguments by citing Paul: Why, then, should parents mourn?

Surely it is a nonsense to begrudge their children the wonderful transformation in their circumstances? Vischer certainly thinks so. If a man were released from a wretched prison and taken into a royal palace, a true friend would rejoice with him. Why should it be any different with parents and children? Hophni and Phinehas, corrupt priests, perished in a battle against the Philistines, in which the Ark of the Covenant was also captured, and Eli died on hearing the news, disgraced by his inability to control his children 1 Samuel 2: Absalom then fought a campaign against his father, David, and was killed.

The story is told in 2 Samuel 13— Devout Christians may have been prepared to follow them to this point, but for a modern reader, the following pill seems even harder to swallow. A number of reasons are adduced in support of this assertion. Tribauer suggests that this is often the only way in which God can get through to parents who disregard his milder warnings issued in scripture and sermons.

He gives the example of David, who needed the death of his infant son to remind him of the gravity of his adultery, and he concludes: Variations on the same illustration appear in Tribauer, Trostschrifft, fos. Eiiijv —Evr , Vischer, Trostschrift, fos. Hendrickson, , p. It can also prevent them from being led into new sins on account of their children. Many parents have high hopes for their offspring and look to them for status, honour, and support in later life. Walther sketches the following scenario: Lutheran consolation for bereaved parents 37 these points, Tribauer comes to the conclusion: However, it may be a form of loving rebuke, along the lines discussed in Proverbs 3 and Hebrews Ciiijr — v , Dvr — v.

Authors of consolation books recognize these fears and seek to allay them. One of the most pressing concerns was the fate of unbaptized babies. Before the Reformation this fate had been an uneviable one. Most babies were baptized within a few days of birth, and those who were unlikely to survive more than a few hours were given an emergency baptism, which could be administered by the parents or a midwife.

It is hardly surprising, then, that parents were particularly anxious about their children who died before baptism or who were stillborn or miscarried. He introduces several biblical examples to show that those who die unbaptized are not necessarily lost. What of the repentant thief on the cross who was told that he would be with Christ in Paradise, he asks? Or, indeed, Israelite boys who died before the day set aside for this ritual?

Suffering, grief, and death were regarded as a direct consequence of the Fall, and therefore required a spiritual remedy. Darinnen auch von der Kinder Tauffe. Jiijr ; cited in Walther, Trost: Verlag des Landes-Industriecomptoirs, , II, But when they stooped to drink, they found that the water was bitter. Moses took a piece of wood and cast it into the water, whereupon it became sweet and good to drink.

Although freed from the Devil, the eternal Pharaoh, they still suffer in their wanderings. The cross is the wood that sweetens tribulations and makes them easier to swallow. Malherbe and Everett Ferguson New York: For further discussions of the patristic and medieval exegesis of Exodus see Scott M.

Christ connects it with his death in John 3: Yet the most powerful consolation they offer is directed towards the hereafter. It concerns the promise that parents will be reunited with their children in the glory of eternal life. There are some inconsistencies in Lutheran conceptions about what happens after death. Some writers argue for a sleep which ends with Judgement Day, after which families and friends will be reunited in heaven. However, Luther did not hold to this view consistently, and it was not taken up by the majority of his followers. The soul of the believer is taken straight into heaven at the moment of death, as Tribauer explains: Johann David Zunner, , pp.

Aber es schleffet nur. Migne, —65 , XLVI, column This is a staple metaphor in Stoic consolation, and is used by Seneca in his letter to a bereaved father: Who is therefore so crazy as to weep for him who goes before, since we must go on the same journey? Gummere, The Loeb Classical Library, 75—7, 3 vols.

Harvard University Press; London: The bereaved father is not Lucilius; Seneca merely sends him a copy of the letter. Von der herrlichen Aufferstehung der Todten. Whole books were written on this endlessly fascinating topic. Lay members of the community were also expected to play their part in comforting grieving fellow Christians, as Paul commands the Roman church: The frontispiece shows a dying man taking leave of his family.

With one hand he holds onto his weeping wife, and with the other he points to the heavenly reunion represented above. The motto below the engraving reads: Vischer explains this through yet another analogy from the Old Testament book of Exodus. The Israelites triumphed over the Amalekites because Moses kept his hands raised in supplication throughout the battle. The battle, he argues, is a pertinent image for the Christian life, which is a constant struggle. At baptism Christians issue a notice of challenge to the Devil, placing themselves under the blood-stained banner and command of Christ.

But Moses did not pray alone: The reference is to 2 Corinthians 1: Vischer differs from his predecessors in stressing the community role in prayerful support, a particularly Lutheran concern. Lutheran consolation for bereaved parents 45 Effective consolation for Lutherans involved three participants. True comfort came from God.

And the form in which so many educated seventeenthcentury Lutherans chose to express this support and solidarity with the bereaved was the funeral poem. In this three-volume manual, illustrated with examples from his own work and that of his contemporaries, he discusses how to write poetry and addresses questions on its social function. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, , I, I. The purposes of poetry 47 Poets had not always been held in such high esteem, as laudable citizens and upholders of the values of civilized society.

Secondly, he questions the assumption that poets have an educative function. He argues that poetry appeals to the lower, less rational elements in human nature, and that developing these elements inevitably reduces the capacity for rational thought and moral action: In Homeric epic we are presented with characters who lament aloud and wallow in grief, and our natural inclination is to sympathize with them.

But reason and decorum require that we do not respond in the same way to events in our own lives: Aristotle had argued that the difference between historical and poetical truth lies not so much in style as in content. Poetry is therefore the more philosophical because it deals with universal truths: Reclam, ; text from the edn. Stephen Haliwell, Longinus, On the Sublime, tr. Fyfe, Demetrius, On Style, tr.

Harvard University Press, The purposes of poetry 49 could be used to script responses for given situations, in many cases establishing a behavioural model for the reader or audience. We see this principle at work in seventeenth-century German theatre, for example in the plays of Andreas Gryphius, and it has implications for early modern Lutheran funeral verse.

Poetry serves instruction by making concepts easier to grasp. August Buchner — , professor of poetry and rhetoric at the University of Wittenberg, differentiates between poets and philosophers in his Poet, published posthumously in Beck, , Hans Heinrich Borcherdt sketches the genesis of this text pp. One particular sweetener is simile and metaphor. Buchner insists that humans are more inclined to take notice of something which resembles truth than of truth in its bare form, and he claims that the very act of uncovering the connection between poetic representation and everyday existence makes the lessons more memorable for the reader or listener: Friedrich Hulsius, ; facs.

Deutsche Barockpoetik und rhetorische Tradition, Rhetorik-Forschungen, 2, 3rd edn. Niemeyer, , p. The purposes of poetry 51 the Orator argues, for example, that listeners may be persuaded by three methods: For early modern writers, the answer to this question lies in the contemporary theoretical discussion of the affects. From classical times, affects were regarded as particular states of the soul provoked by external stimuli. Each affect is accompanied by a physiological reaction. In the case of fear, the emotional response may be accompanied by an increased heart rate, trembling, or constriction of the throat.

This quasi-medical explanation of the emotions, which relies on an intimate connection between mind and body, is closely linked to the Galenic theory of the four humours. In fact, the humours and the affects were thought to operate together, as the famous English melancholic Robert Burton explains in his Anatomy of Melancholy: Sutton I and II and H.

Russell, The Loeb Classical Library, —7 and , 5 vols. See Cicero, Brutus, tr. Hendrickson, and Orator, tr. Hubbell, The Loeb Classical Library, , rev. Stoic philosophers condemned appeals to the affects because they believed that to allow the emotions to gain the upper hand could induce madness. It is worth stressing here that their objection was both therapeutic and ethical.

Aristotle presents a rather different view in his Poetics and ethical writings. But this does not make them dangerous in themselves. He reconciles reason and emotion in his ideal of metropatheia moderation of the affects: But then the best state in relation to each class of thing is the middle state. It is clear, therefore, that the virtues will be either all or some of these middle states. Martin Kempe —82 , of the Pegnesischer Blumenorden, assures his with Aristotle.

Alber, , p. Rackham, Loeb Classical Library, 2nd edn. The purposes of poetry 53 may be provoked for a particular purpose so long as they remain under the control of the poet or orator: This is the principle of catharsis. The humoral theory sought to restore the lost equilibrium by applying the antithesis of the dominant humour. But cathartic treatments would increase the intensity of the affect, a procedure analogous to the early modern medical practice of provoking a sickness to feverpitch, the peripateia or turning point when recovery could begin.

But reason and emotion are not necessarily competing forces within the human mind. For Aristotle, the soul is made up of different capacities. Johann Jacob Bauhofer, ; facs. Joachim Dyck, Ars Poetica: Texte und Studien zur Dichtungslehre und Dichtkunst, 2 Frankfurt a. Niemeyer, — , II, Rackham, The Loeb Classical Library, 73, rev. Harvard University Press, , II. Uberhaupt aber muss er alle Zierlichkeiten seiner Sprache aufs genaueste inne haben.

Most of the pronunciations on affective style in the poetics are based on classical works written for orators because poetry has always been closely related to rhetoric. In it, he insists that an audience is more likely to be moved to action by what they hear if they enjoy listening to the speaker: Earlier in the work Quintilian uses the terms ethos and pathos.

Ethos can be rendered by the Latin mores, suggesting an ethical element, whereas pathos is translated by adfectus. In the second scheme, however, the difference is merely qualitative: Brian Vickers discusses the strange blending that occurs in this passage: If a poet is to move a reader, Horace argues, the reader needs to believe that the poet is moved by what he writes. If the poem does not convey this, the effect is weakened considerably. This view is echoed by Quintilian, who regards it as a fundamental rhetorical principle: But there is a fourth element which we must not overlook, one that is especially important for considering Lutheran poetics.

He goes on to suggest that in some cases the difference is merely one of degree love is pathos and affection ethos. Sometimes, however, the two are incompatible because pathos stirs up emotions and ethos calms them Institutio oratorio, VI. Birken has little concern that poetry and Christian devotion might pull in two different directions: From the early years of the Reformation poetry had played an important role.

Christoph Riegel [publisher] and Christoph Gerhard [printer], ; facs. Olms, , x. His introduction to the Wittenberger Gesangbuch of shows his recognition that dogma was most usefully embedded in a pleasurable medium: The Psalms are so moving, he claims, because in them we hear men of God speaking from the heart in their own words. But what of its social function? Occasional poetry has suffered a very bad press because it is often considered pedestrian and schematic, the element of compulsion affording unfavourable conditions for poetic inspiration.

But poets now considered canonical also wrote occasional poems, and, more importantly, included them in their published anthologies alongside devotional verse, love poetry, and witty epigrams. Firstly, their publication in funeral booklets and as independent publications, and the survival of a large number of these ephemeral publications in archives and libraries, means that the literary historian can piece together a much fuller picture of literary activity in the early modern period than modern editions of canonical poets would afford.

Sometimes this results in the uncovering of a poet deserving further critical attention. Secondly, these publications tell us a great deal about attitudes to poetry amongst early modern Lutherans. Thirdly, the funeral poetry sheds light on mourning practices, and shows how the advice in the consolation books and sermons had been internalized, at least by the middle classes.

Finally, the poems are important for what they reveal about social networks and concepts of friendship in the period. Christian Bauch, ; and Jakob Balde, […] Sylvae lyricae […], 2nd edn. The purposes of poetry 61 The majority of funeral poems sent to middle-class families on bereavement were written by friends, family, and personal acquaintances.

The poet is Tobias Mahn, a student in receipt of a stipend from the court. Zedler, —50 , IX , pp. Rodopi, , pp. In his discussion of early modern concepts of friendship, van Ingen suggests that this model was predominant in the seventeenth century, although by the mid-eighteenth century a more subjective concept comes to the fore. Funeral verse is part of a communal expression of grief, and should be considered alongside attendance at the funeral and the wearing of mourning-bands as a mark of solidarity with the bereaved.

Ketelsen rehearses a number of enlightenment criticisms. This offence is compounded by the fact that poets were sometimes paid for their efforts, the appropriation by the middle classes of the feudal system of patronage and representation: Many families did use the funeral booklets as an opportunity for self-presentation, and some even bankrupted themselves in the process. Routledge, , p. Macmillan, , p. Steiner, , I, 36—51 p.

Dichter und Ratsherr in Hamburg. Christians, , pp. The poems on the death of Catharina Margarethe appear alongside other similar poetic exercises, including some on the Marino translations. Was kaum Achill gerieth mit allen seinen Thaten. Trug doch noch dessen Stumpf in deinen Versen Frucht: The purposes of poetry 67 In the article on eighteenth-century responses to occasional poetry, Ketelsen takes exception to the grand claims of seventeenth-century funeral poets: Wolters, , p. Leonhard Spengel, 3 vols. Julius Caesar Scaliger refers to it in his Poetices libri septem […] Lyon: It enacts an important therapeutic process in which the bereaved is to participate.

Unexpressed sorrow was believed to retard the grieving process, so tears had to be expunged before consoling remedies could be applied. The scheme also has a temporal aspect: A collection of early seventeenth-century funeral sermons makes striking use of this tripartite structure. The warp and the woof of his sermons are the comforting words of the Old and New Testaments, woven together to ch. The preface was prepared for the edition, but was retained in the posthumous edition, to which reference is made here. Th Models and metaphors 71 produce a cloth.

This cloth, he insists, should be used both to bandage the wound of grief consolatio and to wipe away tears lamentatio. But his sermons also have a further function, inferred by the title. They serve as a memorial, part of the same social framework of respect and commemoration as the long black mourning bands customarily worn to mark the death of a friend or relative laudatio.

In it, he places his poem alongside carnations, rosemary, narcissi, and wintergreen, plants typically associated with funerals and with enduring commemoration. Zedler, —50 , XLV, Quellen zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache des Niemeyer, , IV, Kijr —Kiijr , lines 35— Mr — v , lines 8—12 emphasis in original publication. For many poets this is not enough. Seeking a more enduring tribute, they exploit the link between verse and stone epitaphs. Verse Grabschriften, based on the ancient genre of the tombstone inscription, which invites passers-by to consider the virtues of the person buried and to ponder their own mortality, are extremely common in funeral booklets and other collections of funeral verse: Olms, , Vor-Rede, fos.

Tobias Gundermann [publisher] and Heinrich Werner [printer], Models and metaphors 73 destination of the soul offers consolation, and the endurance of the name is commemoration. Janus-like, laudatio looks both to the past and the future; praise recalls the virtues and qualities of the dead, but also ensures that reputation lives on beyond earthly death, a counterbalance to the impermanence of the body. An epicedium which makes this link between stone monument and poem explicit is attached to the funeral booklet for 7-year-old Gottfried Winckler Figure 3.

In many cases poems which emphasize their commemorative function argue for the supremacy of the written word over the stone monument. The Leipzig superintendent Martin Geier, later court preacher in Dresden, takes up the issue in a funeral sermon from his collection Betrachtung der Sterbligkeit. LP Stolberg Models and metaphors 75 Geier stresses the mobility of printed booklets in opposition to immobile physical monuments.

Others point to the impermanence of the latter; the stone sepulchre must yield to time and the elements. The suggestion that the poetic word is more enduring is not uncommon, if belied by the fate of so much occasional verse. This is, of course, a common classical topos. Steiner, , II, —59 p. Ciijr — v , strophe 8. Barock, 2 and 3, 2 vols. Niemeyer, , , I, Vorrede, fo. Clarendon Press, , pp.

This claim was taken up enthusiastically in the Renaissance and beyond: Ronsard, Tasso, and Shakespeare are but a few examples. Oxford University Press, , p. Let others attempt to slay death with their quills, sharpened with praise for the prince. Vater knows this is unnecessary. Unfortunately this hope proved short-lived.

A number of formal devices are employed to support the commemorative function of funeral poetry. One of the most striking is the arrangement of words into a shape, as in the example of the tombstone for Gottfried Winckler discussed above Figure 3. A Yearbook, 4 , —47; Jeremy D. Adler and Ulrich Ernst, Text als Figur: Guide to an Unknown Literature New York: Delp, , pp.

Michael Endter [publisher] and Bayreuth: Johann Gebhard [printer], ; facs. Martin Bircher and Friedhelm Kemp, 10 vols. The prince, it is implied, will exhibit all three virtues in facing his threefold loss. It begins at the top, and follows round in couplets. But as the reader reaches the lowest point, the consolatio begins. As the father is urged to turn his eye from earthly matters to his heavenly Father, he must also turn his eye to follow the direction of the text.

The transition from lamentation to consolation is marked here in the rhyme scheme. The inner poem highlights the central tenet of Lutheran consolation: This takes place in the Latin distichs. The Latin couplet at the foot of the cross is a chronogram. Sigmund von Birken warns that chronograms should be used judiciously: This device, like the chronogram, concentrates its commemoration on an incontestable fact about the deceased: It adds a personal note, but can be detrimental to the overall effect of a poem, placing unnecessary constraints upon it.

Eine Studie zu Formen und Funktionen einer literarischen Kunstform. Dargestellt an Beispielen von Gelegenheitsdichtung des Models and metaphors 81 console the bereaved or pay tribute to the dead. Here the attempt to work through the sorrow in metre and rhyme and also in the acrostic, may have played an important therapeutic role in the grieving process. The acrostic poems are preceded by two singlestrophe Latin epicedia which correspond closely in subject matter to the German texts fos.

Waisenhaus, , pp. It has been attributed to both Martin Rutilius, pastor in Teutleben and archdeacon in Weimar, who is supposed to have written it in Zedler ed. Bertelsmann, —16 , pp. Am End wolt abereissen. Johann Friedrich Sartorius, —8. Teubner, —77 , V, The thorns of sin, the world and the Devil seek to hold Christians fast and choke their faith, as in the parable of the sower. Two common commemorative devices use names to make a statement about the character or fate of the child: Both can be illustrated from poems published in the funeral booklet for 6-year-old Andreas Vollrad Nietner, who died in Wiewohl ist doch verblast!

Andreas Vollrad Nitner von Halle. GOtt eilet mit den Seinen hier weg. Nv 26 , fo. Models and metaphors 87 Er eilet mit den Seinen weg geschwinde Und bringt sie in das rechte Vaterland. Cambridge University Press, , pp. This is also the conclusion to which Tatlow comes p. Commemorative techniques based on names do not rely solely on implying ingenious links with Bible verses.

Many names were already endowed with a popular etymological meaning, which could be drawn on for both laudatio and consolatio. In Maria Zeidler died shortly after her elder sister Elisabeth. C4v emphasis in original publication. Birken acknowledges the close link between commemoration and lamentation: This metaphor is by no means unusual in funeral sermons and epicedia. Fr — v , lines 9—20 my emphasis. Jahrhunderts VD17 use it, and it was also a common consolatory conceit outside Lutheran Germany, with English examples including [I. A Consolatory Letter to a Friend […] London: She is encouraged to play an active role in the consolation process, using the poem to dispel some of her sorrow.

Lamentation is a necessary stage in the grieving process, but once tears have been provoked and released, consolation may and should be offered. Hiijv —H4r , lines 20—6 emphasis in original publication. Models and metaphors Vns kan in unser Hertz. In the central section of the poem Pirner both evokes and undermines the horror of death.

This is a reference to Job 5: One of the most important uses which Herberger envisages for his mourning bands is to dress the wound of grief. He compares them with the bandages used by the Good Samaritan, evoking the importance of neighbourly Christian support in times of emotional trauma. We have already seen how this medical model is central to funeral sermons and consolation manuals.

It is no less common in epicedia, where it functions both as metaphor for the comfort at which the writers aim and as actual therapeutic practice, intended to relieve the malady of sorrow.

Poetry and parental bereavement in early modern Lutheran Germany

Grief is regarded as a deep wound which can split open if more than one child in a family dies in quick succession, as was the case for Conrad Viktor Schneider, professor of medicine at the University of Wittenberg, who lost his wife and two daughters within the space of a couple of months: But the sorrow and melancholy that could follow were often considered more serious threats to the spiritual and physical health of the bereaved. M4v —Nv , strophe 2 emphasis in original publication. Jeremias Mamphras, , pp. Amongst the epicedia is one by Martin Opitz fo.

F4v —Gr , strophe 4, lines 1—3. Others model their efforts on a different medical practice, the provocation of the illness to fever pitch as a means of expunging it. E4v —Fijr , strophe 2. Johann Wittigau, , pp. Models and metaphors 95 Die Nymfen sollen sich in Schleyer kleiden: Die Lufft vom Seufftzen voll und vom Geweine. Beym Cherubinen selbst in ihren Orden. Wir werden sie durch Harm und Jammer neiden. The grief must be given every opportunity to come to the surface, so the poet calls on the aid of Melpomene and focuses his mind on attributes of mourning: This is a common consolatory pattern.

F4r —Gr , lines 60—end. We see this thought process at work in the funeral booklet for 1-year-old Caspar Ludolph von Klitzing. Ddijv , lines 21—4. J2v —Kv , lines 1—2. Joachim Wagnitz preached on Wisdom 4: The belief that art could alleviate physical suffering is connected with the ideal of the doctor as a medicus gratiosus, who was to make patients as comfortable and cheerful as possible. We return once again to the theories of the humours and the affects.

Comfort was not only to be found in reading verses composed by another, but also in the activity of writing for oneself. A doctor who had lost his wife and all his children in an outbreak of the plague wrote a poem to console himself. In a letter to a friend, he speaks very movingly of the relief this activity brought him: The grieving father may have been able to objectify his emotions and perceive them to some extent as an outsider, placing him in a better position to reason with himself.

Ddv emphasis in original publication. Wolfgang Moritz Endter, , pp. The brevity with which Brockes deals with these bereavements contrasts starkly with the time he spends describing the progress of his career, as well as various accidents that befell him. Although it is tempting to argue that this suggests a certain lack of paternal feeling on his part, it may well be genre-determined. It seems that Brockes intended his biography to be published, perhaps after his death. Christian Herold, ; facs. Lang, , pp.

Johann Christian Olearius makes use of this in his poem for the father of Regina Maria Nicolai —91 , based on Psalm Models and metaphors a crucial point. Jch bin zu schwach zum Arzt; zu tief sind deine Wunden. Sie heile jene Macht: In some of the most striking and effective funeral poems the boundaries between laudatio, lamentatio, and consolatio are blurred.

Note the reference to Job 5: The following poem by Johann Reichard Neuheller makes a similar point pp. Lazarus Zetzner, , l. As he muses on their temporal and eternal fates, on the putrefaction of the body and the separation of the saved and the damned, he is made acutely aware of the transience of his own existence and the need to make timely preparation for death: Was war ich vor! Niemeyer, — , III, 1—39, strophe The minister could also remind the bereaved of appropriate grieving practices and elucidate a Lutheran understanding of death. The trade in printed funeral booklets made the sermons, speeches, and poems accessible to a considerable and dispersed readership.

In the Darmstadt court councillor Rudolph Friedrich Schultt sent his daughter Juliana Patientia a funeral booklet for Anna Sabina Bilefeld, wife of the court preacher. Steiner, , I, 66—81 p. Ambrosius Kirchner, and The sermon was preached by Andreas Staphorst. In this way the pastoral and instructive concerns of funeral sermons and poems extend beyond the immediate family into the community at large. For a pre-Reformation Christian, death was a crucial moment, at which the future state of the soul could be determined.

As a result a considerable literature developed, teaching the art of how to die well the ars moriendi. Olms, , pp. Niemeyer, , pp. But how were they to make these preparations? One method was to learn from the exemplary death of others: Wolfgang Eberhard Felsecker, , dedication, fo. Death and didacticism The art of dying ars moriendi is intimately bound up with the art of living: The opening lines are clearly based on a hymn by a Coburg schoolmaster Michael Franck, which had enjoyed wide circulation in the early s: In 8-year-old Johann Conrad Evers was killed in an accident: Waisenhaus, , no.

In a sermon preached in a Leipzig clergyman, Adam Bernd, describes death as a basilisk which the faithful should look resolutely in the eye before it turns its fatal gaze on them and catches them unawares. This strategy was familiar from the medieval transi or cadaver tombs, which represent the processes of death and decomposition on the human body. Taking her features in a parody of Petrarchan enumeration, Gueinz graphically paints her putrefaction: Die Stirne ist eine kaale […] Schale. Hijr —Hiijr , lines 39— Johann Friedrich Braun, , p. University of California Press, The corpses are a visual memento mori, and reveal in gruesome detail the sorry substance of the human body.

But they are also evoked to the classical ubi sunt? Death and didacticism remind Frau Weise that decomposition is an unavoidable stage in the transition from earthly to heavenly bodies: Romanus alludes to John This claim can only make sense if we see his shock tactic as part of the consolation process.

By forcing Frau Weise to focus on the putrefaction, Romanus attempts to bring her to the point where she can relinquish her children and look forward instead to reunion in heaven. Here memento mori and consolation converge. In funeral poetry, then, memento mori, is rarely an end in itself. And even this contemptus mundi aspect is not the ultimate aim. The bereaved may be urged to live their own earthly lives in the light of the hereafter, but there is also a consolatory thrust to the contemptus mundi. Poets set the misery which the child has left behind against his or her immeasurable joys in heaven, a tactic used in sixteenth-century consolation books for grieving parents with their rags-to-riches anecdote.

The sermon was delivered and the funeral booklet published in Leipzig, but the father came from Liegnitz.

Hr , lines 7—8. Aiijr —A4r , lines 59— Or differences are couched in biblical allusions: Neue Buchhandlung, , II. This is the main argument of two poems from the funeral booklet for Johanna Maria Zittemann, the year-old daughter of a Leipzig pharmacist. An dessen Seiten Sie in ewger Lust sich schmieget. In the second strophe, however, the situation is turned on its head. She has not been diverted from her intended path, but has achieved her aim all the sooner through death. The second poem opens with the image of a man lost in the dark on an unknown road: Kv —K2v , lines 1—8, 13— Diijr —D4v , strophe 4.

Fijv —F4r , lines 49— A4v —Br , lines 1—6. Ruh sanft in deiner Klufft. But the soul also holds out the hope of physical resurrection, when it will be reunited with the body. By the end of the poem earthly considerations yield to the heavenly perspective. Dialogue is a didactically effective form. Aiijv —A4r emphasis in original publication. Death and didacticism instruction and propaganda in the early years of the Reformation.

The party to be enlightened stands for the reader, who is taken through the same reasoning processes as in a real discussion.

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If the dialogue is a representation of a communicative process, it is also, like any text, a communication itself. Literary Dialogue in Social and Political Contexts. Cambridge University Press, , p. Winter, , p. The favourite type of funeral dialogue poem for children stages a conversation between the bereaved parent and the child in heaven, who is given voice through prosopopoeia conformatio.

When an advocate speaks for a client, the bare facts produce the effect; but when we pretend that the victims themselves are speaking, the emotional effect is drawn also from the persons. Seventeenth-century poets seem to have been aware of the term prosopopoeia, and applied it to their funeral writings. Friedrich Hulsius , I, IX. Harvard University Press, , IX. For a historical survey of theories of prosopopoeia, see James J. Cambridge University Press, , ch. And the poem itself is presented as a handkerchief that Elisabeth is sending down to her weeping mother.

Hiijv —H4r , lines 37—40 emphasis in original publication. Death and didacticism those who had mastered speech and developed the capacity for rational thought whilst alive, but also infants wise beyond their years, who offer doctrinally acceptable words of comfort to their parents, in line with the belief that children attain perfection and maturity in heaven.

Prosopopoeial poems play on this impression. They recall the relationship on earth and, as Carrdus has suggested, anticipate its revival in heaven. H3r — v , strophe 1. Studies of Grief in Adult Life, 3rd edn. Penguin, , p. Pimlico, —8 , III, — The children in prosopopoeial poems speak from a superior spiritual position, advising, encouraging, and admonishing their living relatives with a heavenly authority that cannot easily be refuted. Last Euch vom Leid abkehren!

Denn es bleibt doch darbey: F4v —Gr , strophe 2. Death and didacticism A form particularly suited to dialogue and debate is the Pindaric ode, with its format of strophe, antistrophe, and epode which reaches a conclusion or achieves some sort of synthesis. In the second cycle, Frau Evers relinquishes her son and accepts her loss strophe , leaving Johann Conrad free to bid farewell to his surviving relatives antistrophe. Anna Maria was the daughter of a Leipzig tradesman who died at an age when marriage would have been a none too distant prospect.

We shall see in Chapter 5 that bridal imagery was very common in funeral writings for teenage girls. Wagner uses it here as the fulcrum on which the debate between human reason and Christian faith turns: Soll des Ringes runde Zeit ohn Ende seyn? Was sollen denn entseelte Leichen? Soll denn so die fromme Braut Seyn verlobet und vertraut?

See Chapter 5, n. Das helle Licht Siehstu nicht. Deinen JEsum wolstu gern im Golde sehn. First, it exposes them as anything but rational: The epode underscores this comforting thought, addressing Anna Maria herself: A form of dialogue, which found particular favour in the early modern period was the echo poem. Diijv —D4r emphasis in original publication. Voices from the Other Side in Early Modern Death and didacticism it underwent a revival in the Renaissance, and is discussed in early modern poetics manuals.

These are the uses that Birken advocates: Nun ich eil von diesen Schrancken: For a further discussion of this form see Lathrop P. Although the echo may seem the ideal vehicle for a disembodied voice, the restrictions of the form weaken the very interlocutor who is supposed to speak from a position of authority.

Jonas, , pp. It is followed by the comment: It was not uncommon for poems to be written as though from another mourner. Opitz had insisted that the dactyl was not an appropriate foot for German verse, but August Buchner had demonstrated that it occurs naturally in German words and speech patterns, and that it was a nonsense to ban all such words from verse. Beck, , pp. This is by no means the only example of a poem with a mixed metre. Aiijr —A4r emphasis in original publication. From here she sings her ode to her grieving relatives. Triumph der seeligen Seele. A Bio-Bibliographical Handbook, 4 vols.

Strophe four highlights earthly misery through polyptoton, designed to make the readers pause to think about the world which they inhabit: The contrasts running through the poem insist that she is to be envied rather than pitied, that her relatives should rejoice in her good fortune rather than mourning her. She joins with the great multitude singing praises, echoing the words of the Seraphim and the four living creatures before the throne of God. It is not hard to see why poems like this were considered particularly effective—and indeed affective.

What may seem surprising is the apparently unorthodox theology behind them. Luther had swept away masses for the dead and the notion of Purgatory by , and with these the idea of revenant spirits who make demands on the living, so what are the poets doing, introducing voices from beyond the grave that engage in conversation with the living? Luther himself is said to have known and approved of one such story, which appeared in several collections of sermon anecdotes. Trailing behind this lively crowd is her own child, wearing the same garments, but moving slowly and laboriously, weighed down by a heavy jug that he is carrying.

She asks him why he is not playing with the other children, and he tells her that his jug is full of her tears. These keep him from enjoying all the pleasures of heaven. This account is not narrated as a dream, but as an actual event, a real encounter between the grieving mother and her son. Caspar Titius, in whose collection it appears, is quick to distance himself from any hint of unorthodoxy in his comment on it: Johann Eyring and Johann Perfert [publ. It is used in a sermon for bereaved parents preached by Kaspar Rothe in The text is John 4: Where stories such as these are introduced, where a dead child is given voice in Lutheran funeral writings and poems, the guiding consideration is rhetorical rather than theological—the affective potential of prosopopoeia proves irresistible.

And far from challenging orthodox Lutheran teachings on death and the afterlife, the children speak absolutely in line with the consolation books, giving textbook descriptions of their heavenly bliss and urging their parents to come to terms with the loss. PreReformation revenant spirits plead for their own sakes, imploring the living to perform acts to reduce their sentence in Purgatory.

But in Lutheran funeral poems, the pastoral focus is on the spiritual and emotional welfare of the living. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, , II, X. Why did the poets choose them, and how did they support the ultimate aim of consolation? University of Chicago Press, ; repr. The central image is of the seasons disordered. The images are informed by the times of year at which her children died: But there is more behind this image than the disjunction of season and event.

An educated reader would recognize the emblematic correspondence between the Four Ages of Man and the four seasons: Both the emblem and the poem draw on a much more basic belief in the unchangeable natural order represented by the seasons. Spring cannot turn into winter, so the image expresses very strongly the shock and apparent injustice when a child or young person dies. Handbuch zur Sinnbildkunst des XVI.