A law in the penal code of France governing public officials who move between the public and private sectors [5] requires a three-year wait between working in the government and taking a job in the private sector. Leung was previously a senior civil servant and administrative officer in charge of lands. His appointment as an executive director of a subsidiary of a land developer led to allegations of collusion of interests and delayed interests. He resigned after two weeks, and the territory's Legislative Council had, for years, an inquiry into the matter. The practice was increasingly viewed as corrupt and a drag on unfastening the ties between private sector and state which prevent economic and political reforms.
In April , a law to phase out amakudari prohibits ministries from attempting to place bureaucrats in industry with implementation in However, the law also removed a two-year ban that prevented retiring officials from taking jobs with companies with which they had official dealings during the five years before retirement.
The term's literal meaning, "descent from heaven," refers to the descent of the Shinto gods from heaven to earth; the modern usage employs it as a metaphor, where "heaven" refers to the upper echelons of the civil service, the civil servants are the deities, and the earth is the private-sector corporations In amakudari, senior civil servants retire to join organizations linked with or under the jurisdiction of their ministries or agencies when they reach mandatory retirement age, usually between 50 and 60 in the public service.
The former officials may collude with their former colleagues to help their new employers secure government contracts, avoid regulatory inspections and generally secure preferential treatment from the bureaucracy. Amakudari may also be a reward for preferential treatment provided by officials to their new employers during their term in the civil service. Some government organisations are said to be expressly maintained for the purpose of hiring retiring bureaucrats and paying them high salaries at taxpayers' expense.
In the strictest meaning of amakudari, bureaucrats retire into private companies. In other forms bureaucrats move into government corporations yokosuberi or 'sideslip' , are granted successive public and private sector appointments wataridori or 'migratory bird' or may become politicians, including becoming members of parliament seikai tenshin.
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Political scientists have identified amakudari as a central feature of Japan's political and economic structure. The practice is thought to bind private and public sector in a tight embrace and prevent political and economic change. Amakudari is widespread in many branches of the Japanese government but is currently subject to government efforts to regulate the practice. Pressure to reduce amakudari retirement to corporations may be leading to an increase in bureaucrats retiring to other public sector organisations instead. Amakudari was a minor issue before World War II since government officials could be outplaced to a large number of industrial organization that were nationalized.
However, reforms during the Occupation of Japan eliminated most of these nationalized organizations resulting in a need to outplace individuals to the private sector.
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Such outplacement is inevitable in a personnel system where traditional Confucian values prevent one who entered the organization at the same time as another to become his subordinate. A study suggested that amakudari retirements to large companies by bureaucrats from prominent ministries, such as the Ministry of Finance, had peaked in but that the practice was on the increase by bureaucrats from other types of government organisations such as the National Tax Agency.
A series of scandals in the mids focused the media spotlight on amakudari. In the general contracting zenekon scandal, corruption was uncovered among bureaucrats associated with building contractors, leading to the jailing of high-ranking politician Shin Kanemaru for tax evasion. The industry was supposed to be regulated by the Ministry of Finance, but the presence of its former officials in top jobs at the lenders is thought to have deflected oversight.
It wasn't until the next decade that Japanese prime ministers responded with policies to limit amakudari, although it is unclear whether these policies are having any effect. In July , Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi ordered that strict amakudari be ended, because of its association with corruption between business and politics. While policy has focused on limiting amakudari to private companies, the number of bureaucrats retiring to jobs at other government organisations yokosuberi or "sideslip" has surged reaching 27, appointments in up 5, on the previous year.
These organisations, numbering 4,, received 98 percent of the expenses for state projects without being subject to the bidding processes faced by private companies. Over 50 years ending in , 68 high-level government bureaucrats have taken jobs with electricity suppliers after retirement from their government positions.
In , 13 retired government bureaucrats were employed in senior positions in Japanese electric utilities. Amakudari is subject to rules which were revised in April in response to corruption scandals. Under the new rules, ministries are instructed to slowly stop helping bureaucrats land new jobs over three years starting in Instead, a job center to be set up by the end of would take on the role, and government agencies and ministries will be prohibited from brokering new jobs for retirees.
However, the law removed a two-year ban that prevented retiring officials from taking jobs with companies with which they had official dealings during the five years before retirement, which may increase amakudari. It also left considerable loopholes, including not placing restrictions on watari in which retired bureaucrats move from one organization to another.
Bureaucrats could retire to a job at another government agency, and then switch jobs to a private company later.
In October , public entities were violating the guidelines concerning amakudari, a figure 38 times higher than the number for the previous year. As well as scandals, the effects of amakudari have been documented by a sizable body of research.
Some studies find that amakudari promotes more risky business activities. A study found that banks with amakudari employees were found to behave less prudently the more retired civil servants they employed measured by the capital-asset ratio, an indicator of the prudential behaviour of banks.
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Many studies find that companies with amakudari employees are subjected to less oversight by public agencies. Around 70 percent of public contracts awarded to organisations that employed hired retired bureaucrats through amakudari were given without a bidding process in The contracts were worth a total billion yen. They are similarly used at large sports stadiums , theme parks , and other such venues, to allow pedestrians to exit freely, but not to enter without paying admission fees.
These doors usually work mechanically, with the door panels constructed of horizontal bars which pass through a "wall" of interlacing interdigitated bars, allowing the door leaves to pass through, but blocking people from illegally entering through the exit. In , the Cocoanut Grove , a popular nightclub in Boston , Massachusetts , went up in flames killing people. One of the main reasons cited for the large number of casualties was the single revolving door located at the entrance. As the mob of panicking patrons attempted to use the door as an escape it soon became jammed, trapping countless people between the door and the crowd pushing towards it.
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As a result, many people died from smoke inhalation , as they were not able to escape the burning nightclub. American revolving doors are now collapsible. Some jurisdictions require them to be flanked by at least one hinged door either by common practice or required by law. For example, the Ontario Building Code 3. The patent describes it as having "three radiating and equidistant wings.
The door "possesses numerous advantages over a hinged-door structure. It goes on to describe how a partition can be hinged so as to open to allow the passage of long objects through the revolving door. The patent itself does not use the term "revolving door". Research into the air and energy exchanges associated with revolving door usage have been carried out on a few occasions. The earliest such study was carried out in by A. Simpson, [15] [16] who worked for the van Kannel revolving door company at the time.
Simpson's study was followed by a study by Schutrum et al. These studies have focused on providing detailed measurements of the quantities of air and heat transferred inside the compartments of a door as it revolves. With the exception of the study by van Schijndel et al. Unfortunately, none of these studies appear to be referenced by existing design codes. Although the aforementioned studies provide useful results, these results are also specific to the type of door which they were acquired for, namely 2m x 2m doors with four compartments.
A more recent experimental study [20] [21] [22] carried out at Imperial College London's Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, has provided more insight into the flow physics by which air is transferred across a revolving door. Airflows and energy losses through revolving doors also occur as a result of leakages past the seals of the door. Leakages are common to any type of opening in an otherwise closed space, but have been investigated in the context of revolving doors by Zmeureanu et al.
The first study concluded that to avoid significant leakages, the seals of the doors should be maintained and periodically replaced if needed. The second study produced design charts for estimating the leakage rate through a revolving door. Unlike the curves for estimating the transfer rate also published in this study, the curves for estimating the leakage rate are more generic. As such these design curves still form the basis of the target leakage rates for revolving doors recommended by the ASHRAE standard Modification of one habit While preferred by building owners for energy conservation, revolving doors may be avoided by some people due to the perceived greater physical effort in using them.
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