In the Seventies and up to the mid-Eighties the rate of growth of labour productivity in small firms was greater than in large firms. This was the time of decentralised production and of the insurgence of districts. Subsequently, this relation switched and the rise in the productivity of large firms was almost twice as big as in the small ones.
Nardozzi, , p. Considering that Italian IDs are formed by small and medium sized firms and that they tend to specialise in traditional sectors, views such as those summarised above deny—or, at the very least, downplay—the relevance of districts for economic growth in Italy today.
More specifically, Nardozzi's remarks raise two issues. The second one is empirical in that he claims that the time when IDs were the most vital element in the economy has passed. Consequently, in order to appreciate the role that IDs have in the evolution of the Italian economy, we must address both of these levels of inquiry. Let us first consider the theoretical issue. The district-based view stresses that in rich capitalist economies goods should not be classified in terms of their natural e. The nature of modern markets suggests that consumers look for tailored goods, so that diversification and customisation are less the exception than the rule.
In this perspective, the distinction between shoes and clothing may be misleading, a more appropriate distinction being that between high quality products—e. The implication is that, in so far as IDs specialise in the former type of goods, they have little to fear from import penetration by less developed countries. Obviously, this is not to say that such a specialisation actually exists. Another aspect of the district-based view is that firms do not only compete, they also cooperate.
Cooperation in production leads to a different division of labour within firms as well as among them, which affects also what and how they learn and innovate.
Thus, what is relevant for economies of scale is not the size of the firm as such but either the size of the single activity that a firm carries out or the size of the set of activities jointly carried out by a group of firms. The critical distinction is not between large and small firms but between large and district firms on the one hand and isolated small firms on the other. Cooperation among potential competitors is not just a way to make up for the lack of size. They rely less on the application of explicit and codified knowledge to production than on the tacit knowledge that is typical of craftsmanship.
This implies that actors must interact in order to identify solutions to problems that have to do with productive linkages. Tacit knowledge—intended, here, as a range of skills and routines that it is difficult, or even impossible, to codify—is a necessary characteristic of production in IDs.
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As Storper points out, however, it is not sufficient in that more is needed to account for the persistence of agglomeration in areas where production costs cease to provide an adequate backing for competitiveness. Cooperation is therefore important not only because it enhances the diffusion of learning abilities. It also creates an environment where trust enables actors to sidestep the alternative between risky market coordination and rigid hierarchical coordination by overcoming the transaction costs—associated to opportunism—that these organisational setups are supposed to reduce.
Basically what Storper and Morgan point to is a different notion of tacit knowledge, which is what M.
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Polanyi actually referred to when he originally introduced the term. It does not refer to specific skills and routines but to the overall background knowledge that actors take for granted when they learn, act and interact. This broader notion of tacit knowledge underlies how actors organise production and how organisation eventually feeds back on their skills and routines.
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This leads to a different account of technology and technological development in that they cannot be isolated from knowledge as a whole, so that: Storper, , p. How does this bear on the debate concerning Italy's industrial decline? In order to assess the debate between the two approaches outlined above, a common ground would seem to lie in a comparison between the costs and profitability of the two alternative industrial structures.
Indeed, two cost structures can be identified and compared on a coeteris paribus basis, provided we assume that technology and knowledge, as well as endowments, are given. If, however, technology and knowledge are assumed to co-evolve with relative prices and to be region-specific, different patterns of development are possible depending on initial conditions and on the path-dependent processes that follow Garofoli, A. Consequently, although at a given point in time profitability in one of these productive systems may be higher, this may depend less on some intrinsic advantages of that system than on the peculiarities of the pattern of evolution in technology and knowledge that happened to emerge—among several possible others—as a result of some exogenous change in relative prices.
Furthermore, even if this static comparison were to point out that one system is definitely preferable, this does not mean that a switch—i. The required changes would have to involve technology and knowledge, along with endowments, but it is hard to believe that the multifarious features of technology and knowledge outlined above would necessarily evolve in such a way as to match the desired pattern requirements.
These methodological considerations suggest that a great many variables are involved in the pattern of development of Italy's manufacturing sector and they interact in a non simple way. Under these circumstances no system such as an ID can be dismissed on the grounds that it does not meet the requirements of theoretical models that simply assume away such a complexity or because of its performance at some point in time. In so far as an ID is systemically open, because market relations interact with knowledge and institutions, its economic performance also depends on that interaction.
It is therefore misleading to assess its vitality—i. Given the importance of institutional elements—including the untraded interdependencies that Storper refers to—for the vitality of IDs, the section that follows situates them in an analysis of social cohesion. Social cohesion is a central feature in all discussions of IDs because it is, at one time, a condition for and a consequence of the vitality of the district. More specifically, it is not enough that actors merely renounce social conflict; they must, at least to some extent, feel that the ends they pursue match those of the economic organisations they act in.
Social cohesion involves trust, i. Trust is important in interfirm relations within IDs because it allows actors to maintain cooperative relations in a competitive context. It is also important in intrafirm relations. Mutual trust here implies that workers are willing to do more than is formally required of them because employers are willing to acknowledge this extra-effort.
Rather than forcing economic activity within the straightjacket of control, IDs can enhance the interaction among workers within firms and among different firms. Rather than protecting their knowledge—their skills and their capabilities—in order not to lose their bargaining power, actors can share it. In so far as they do so, they enhance not only the diffusion of existing knowledge: In this perspective, Charlie Chaplin's parody of the Taylorist division of labour in Modern Times would reflect a waste of resources—the actual and potential skills of the worker—at the expense of the capabilities of the firm Loasby, ; Dosi et al.
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Social cohesion also involves confidence Mistri and Solari, ; Mistri, While trust has to do with the behaviour of other actors, confidence has to do with a system's overall performance. From the perspective of entrepreneurs, confidence includes positive expectations in terms of market demand and profit opportunities. It involves reliance on the ID as a buffer: From the perspective of a worker, it includes a non-decreasing income and the possibility—should she want to—to set up her own business. Here too the ID may act as a buffer: Social cohesion allows an ID to operate differently from a large firm, as well as from an undifferentiated set of small firms.
This reinforcement effect, coupled with shared knowledge, allows the ID to act as a firm incubator, thus to reproduce entrepreneurial capabilities over time Becattini, A district may lose its competitive advantage if it does not adapt to two types of change: Adaptation to these changes involves a range of possible actions, which result from the purposive conduct of some actor or the spontaneous outcome of a self-organising process.
They reflect a sometimes implicit choice as to whether it is better to rely on path dependent knowledge in the existing industries or to shift to new industries, to focus on cost scrapping or on qualitative upgrading, to focus on technology or on design, etc. Although in practice these alternatives may not be as clear cut as they are presented here, the issue remains of what the priorities are.
What is important, here, is that these actions must take into account the requirements of two sub-systems: They must allow the reproduction of the ID's economic environment but they must also be consistent with the reproduction of the ID's social environment.
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The discussion that follows aims to focus on how these intertwined constraints have affected the vitality of IDs and, possibly, Italy's overall economic performance. Dei Ottati address the vitality issue by providing a statistical analysis of the Italian economy during the s. They divide the manufacturing sectors into four groups: Becattini and Dei Ottati also divide Italian provinces into four classes, according to their prevailing industrial structure: Let us briefly summarise their results. Similarly, district-related provinces export more than large firm ones, both in absolute and per capita terms.
Value added rises more in the district-related provinces than elsewhere. Employment in the private sector rises more in district-related provinces. It rises especially in non-trade service sectors, mostly in business-related services. Employment in manufacturing drops everywhere but less in district-related provinces and sectors.
In the heavy manufacturing industries, the drop in employment is paralleled by a rise in local units, thereby leading to a significant decline in the average size of local units. Activity ratios are higher and unemployment is lower in district-related provinces. In general, per capita income is higher in these same provinces. Migration tends to flow into district-related provinces and out of large firm and residual provinces. This final information is particularly important, according to Becattini and Dei Ottati.
Becattini and Dei Ottati, , p. Despite this positive performance, a few problems stand out and should not be disregarded. Becattini and Dei Ottati distinguish two district-related groups of industries but, although they do point out that these groups perform differently, they do not elaborate on these different performances, which substantially lead to a recomposition: Employment in the latter group dropped by Local units in C dropped by This recomposition does not lead to any significant positive change in the foreign accounts: Unfortunately, compensation between the two groups of industries has not been complete: Since these two groups of industries are generally based in different provinces, the effects on employment have been rather grievous: The impression is that this recomposition led to significant social costs.
Given the above discussed centrality of social cohesion for IDs, this seems to be a rather important issue. The share of non-regular employees in total employment complements the above data Figure 1. While the figures for M are always lower than those of the other industries, the figure for C is systematically higher than those for both M and the heavy mechanical industries H , and the gap between C and the other two increases over time. Truly, when market demand is high and growing, the cost of precariousness may be low, as Brusco argued, but the above data on employment suggest that this is not the case today.
In these industries, firms are shifting their private costs onto workers, thereby bypassing competition through the creation of social costs. Share of irregular employees: C, consumer goods; M, manufacturing industries; H, heavy industries. The strong difference between these two groups of district-related industries calls for further inquiry.
An account for the different performance could be that C is less subject to technological progress, thus more easily reproducible in low-cost countries. But this would imply that social cohesion in the related IDs either does not exist or it cannot make up for the technological drawbacks. The data that follows focuses on social cohesion. It does not allow for a comparison between the two groups of industries but the aggregate picture is worth taking into account. Figure 2 provides data on fatal accidents occurring to workers in Italian provinces, classified according to the criteria followed by Becattini and Dei Ottati.
Truly, district-related provinces are not the most dangerous areas and the firms involved may be external to the IDs but it is nonetheless striking that this kind of situation should occur where social cohesion is so important. Fatal accidents per 1, workers in manufacturing and services by groups of provinces , From to there was a general reduction in fatal accidents, which is particularly strong in district-related provinces.
A possible explanation may be that the industrial recomposition within districts was to the advantage of firms that rely on means other than dangerous working conditions to achieve competitiveness. The data for district provinces nonetheless remains higher than the data for large-firm provinces. The data considered here have to do with the situation any worker may be in, as a worker. Let us now consider a situation a worker may look forward to, that of setting up his or her own business. Indeed, one might be willing to suffer the social costs depicted above, provided they are the price to pay in order to achieve social mobility.
Figure 3 shows that, in the period — more firms were shut down than were set up. Setting up one's own business became ever more difficult. Nor is the turnover of firms such that it provides much opportunity: Figure 4 shows that inceptions have declined until recently and, although there has been a slight rise since the early s, the overall level is definitely lower than in the s. We recommend downloading the newest version of Flash here, but we support all versions 10 and above. If that doesn't help, please let us know. Unable to load video. Please check your Internet connection and reload this page.
If the problem continues, please let us know and we'll try to help. An unexpected error occurred. Questo protocollo elabora anche come tenere traccia di migrazione cellulare in 3D. Click here for the english version. For other languages click here. In vivo , l'attivazione, proliferazione e funzione delle cellule immuni tutti si verificano in un ambiente tridimensionale 3D , per esempio nei linfonodi o tessuti. Fino a data, la maggior parte dei sistemi in vitro si basano su superfici bidimensionali 2D , come piastre di coltura cellulare o vetrini coprioggetti.
A condizioni fisiologiche in modo ottimale mimare in vitro , utilizziamo una matrice di collagene 3D semplice. Qui descriviamo un protocollo ottimizzato come impostare e gestire le cellule immuni umane, ad esempio primario umani linfociti T citotossici CTL e cellule natural killer NK nella matrice collagene 3D per l'utilizzo con la microscopia di luce-foglio per l'imaging di cellule vive e campioni fissati.
La procedura di acquisizione e analisi di migrazione delle cellule delle immagini sono presentati. Tuttavia, uno scenario fisiologico richiede, nella maggior parte dei casi, un microambiente 3D, in cui la matrice extracellulare ECM svolge un ruolo determinante. ECM non solo fornisce l'essenziale struttura 3D per mantenere la morfologia cellulare corretto, ma offre anche segnali di sopravvivenza o direzionale spunti per un funzionamento ottimale di molte cellule 4 , 5.
Nel corpo umano, la maggior parte delle cellule soprattutto le cellule immuni, esercitano le loro funzioni nell'ambito di uno scenario 3D. Riarrangiamento del citoscheletro svolge un ruolo chiave nella migrazione cellulare Per l'imaging 3D, la tecnologia sviluppata di recente la microscopia luce-foglio noto anche come microscopia di illuminazione su un unico piano offre una soluzione soddisfacente 13 , Durante l'acquisizione di imaging, un sottile foglio di luce statico viene generato per illuminare il campione. In questo modo, sul piano di messa a fuoco, una vasta area possa essere illuminata contemporaneamente senza intaccare le cellule fuori piano.
In questo articolo, descriviamo come visualizzare cellule immuni umane primarie utilizzando la microscopia a luce-foglio e come analizzare la migrazione in uno scenario 3D. Please recommend JoVE to your librarian. Per visualizzare la formazione di protrusione di CTL umano primario, transfected transitoriamente una proteina mEGFP fusa per etichettare il citoscheletro di actina in CTL come descritto prima delle Un giorno dopo trasfezione, le cellule sono state incorporate nella matrice di collagene.
Come mostrato in Figura 2A e complementare Movie 1 , durante la migrazione, forma umana di CTL sporgenze principali a forma di limone, orlata da una raffinata dell'alberino-come le strutture. Nell'esperimento mostrato in Figura 2 e Movie 1 , CTL sono stati monitorati automaticamente come descritto nel protocollo parte 4. Sono stati analizzati due parametri di migrazione: La figura 3 Mostra un esempio di campioni fissati in gel di collagene 3D, in cui perforin1 endogeno PFN1 e actina erano macchiate.
Osserviamo che le cellule alle posizioni differenti z uniformemente sono macchiate, che indica che le procedure descritte nel nostro protocollo ottenere una soddisfacente penetrazione degli anticorpi in gel di collagene. A inserire lo stantuffo nel capillare e come bagnato lo stantuffo con il terreno di coltura. C montare capillari utilizzando argilla di modellistica. Lo stantuffo e l'asta di collagene sono raffigurati nelle caselle grigie e rossi, rispettivamente.
D gestire asta di collagene di equilibramento con terreno di coltura o per immunostaining. Viene visualizzata la finestra di una cella rappresentativa. B traiettorie di CTL per 6 h. Le traiettorie automatedly vengono rilevate dal software codice colore: Un punto rappresenta una cella. Per favore clicca qui per vedere questo video. When working with atlas map items, you can now specify a predefined scale mode for the map.
There are a number of additions to the map composer to make life easier while working in map composition mode:. HTML Frames in the composer have been improved. There is a new add frame button which can be used to manually create multiple linked frames.
We have also improved our page break logic making it less likely that you will get page breaks that cut through the middle of lines of text when paginating HTML frames. This plugin provides an easy and intuitive approach and user-friendly interface to searching metadata catalogues within QGIS and now ships by default with the QGIS core product. We have a great new render in QGIS 2. The shapeburst renderer will allow you to fill polygons with a gradient extending from the line edge towards the polygon interior.
You can read more about shapeburst here. When using a marker line along a line or polygon edge, you can now specify an offset so that the marker line starts a set distance from the beginning of the line. A new renderer has been added for polygon features, allowing you to style everything outside your polygons. This can be useful for highlighting areas, or for creating cartographic masks. When used with new shapeburst style, you can now produce output as shown in the image for this entry.
The new version of plugin mask helps to easily create mask layers from the current selection, label features only in those areas, and generate an automatic mask in Atlas map generation. In the previous version was possible to save style with postgres layers, now will be possible for Spatialite layers too.
This functions allow to embed different styles inside a spatialite container simplifying sharing data and their presentation. A video tutorial of this funcionality can be found here http: Elenco cambiamenti per QGIS 2. Infine vorremmo ringraziare i nostri sponsor ufficiali per il loro prezioso supporto finanziario: Quick field field calc bar in attribute table Feature: Colour preview modes in composer and map canvas Feature: New expression functions Feature: