However, in the early 16th century, the third fall was located at the entrance courtyard to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and an engraved stone cross signifying this still remains in situ. Prior to the 15th century, the final station occurred before this point would even have been reached. Four stations commemorate encounters between Jesus and other people, in the city streets; one encounter is mentioned in all the Synoptic Gospels , one is mentioned only in the Gospel of Luke , and the remaining two encounters only exist in popular tradition.
The New Testament makes no mention of a meeting between Jesus and his mother , during the walk to his crucifixion, but popular tradition introduces one. The fourth station, the location of a 19th-century Armenian Catholic oratory , commemorates the events of this tradition; a lunette , over the entrance to the chapel, references these events by means of a bas-relief carved by the Polish artist Zieliensky. The oratory, named Our Lady of the Spasm , was built in , but its crypt preserves some archaeological remains from former Byzantine buildings on the site, including a mosaic floor.
The fifth station refers to the biblical episode in which Simon of Cyrene takes Jesus' cross, and carries it for him. An inscription, in the architrave of one of the Chapel doors, references the Synoptic events. Prior to the 15th century, this location was instead considered to be the House of the Poor Man , and honoured as the fifth station for that reason; [23] the name refers to the Lukan tale of Lazarus and Dives , [24] this Lazarus being a beggar, and Dives being the Latin word for [one who is] Rich.
Adjacent to the alleged House of the Poor Man is an arch over the road; the house on the arch was thought to be the corresponding House of the Rich Man.
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A medieval Roman Catholic legend viewed a specific piece of cloth, known as the Veil of Veronica , as having been supernaturally imprinted with Jesus' image, by physical contact with Jesus' face. By metathesis of the Latin words vera icon meaning true image into Veronica , [29] it came to be said that the Veil of Veronica had gained its image when a Saint Veronica encountered Jesus, and wiped the sweat from his face with the cloth; no element of this legend is present in the Bible, although the similar Image of Edessa is mentioned in The Epistles of Jesus Christ and Abgarus King of Edessa , a late piece of New Testament apocrypha.
The Veil of Veronica relates to a pre-Crucifixion image, and is distinct from the post-Crucifixion Holy Face image, often related to the Shroud of Turin. The current sixth station of the Via Dolorosa commemorates this legendary encounter between Jesus and Veronica. The location was identified as the site of the encounter in the 19th century; in , Greek Roman Catholics purchased the 12th-century ruins at the location, and built the Church of the Holy Face and Saint Veronica on them, claiming that Veronica had encountered Jesus outside her own house, and that the house had formerly been positioned at this spot.
The church includes some of the remains of the 12th-century buildings which had formerly been on the site, including arches from the Crusader-built Monastery of Saint Cosmas. The present building is administered by the Little Sisters of Jesus , and is not generally open to the public. The Eighth station commemorates an episode described by the Gospel of Luke , alone among the canonical gospels, in which Jesus encounters pious women on his journey, and is able to stop and give a sermon.
The present eighth station is adjacent to the Greek Orthodox Monastery of Saint Charalampus ; it is marked by the word Nika a Greek word meaning Victory carved into the wall, and an embossed cross. Each Friday, a Roman Catholic procession walks the Via Dolorosa route, starting out at the monastic complex by the first station; the procession is organized by the Franciscans of this monastery, who also lead the procession.
Acted re-enactments also regularly take place on the route, ranging from amateur productions with, for example, soldiers wearing plastic helmets and vivid red polyester wraps, to more professional drama with historically accurate clothing and props. At the entrance of the Patriarchate is a column with a cross on it, marking the 9th Station of the Via Dolorosa.
However, despite the ban, dozens of Coptic pilgrims travel to Jerusalem every year, especially during the Easter holidays. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For other uses, see Via Dolorosa disambiguation. In rest of the NT. Road to Damascus John's vision. Chapel of Simon of Cyrene. One Friday in Jerusalem. Relics, Replicas, Theme Parks. University of Chicago Press, The Stations of the Cross. In accordance with the apocryphal Acts of Peter , he was crucified head down. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia , Peter labored in Rome during the last portion of his life, and there his life was ended by martyrdom.
Through jealousy and envy the greatest and most just pillars of the Church were persecuted, and came even unto death. The death of Peter is attested to by Tertullian at the end of the 2nd century, in his Prescription Against Heretics , noting that Peter endured a passion like his Lord's: There Peter was girded by another, since he was bound to the cross". Peter inverts the Latin cross based on this refusal, and his claim of being unworthy to die the same way as his Saviour. Peter of Alexandria , who was bishop of Alexandria and died around A.
Jerome describes that "At his Nero's hands Peter received the crown of martyrdom being nailed to the cross with his head towards the ground and his feet raised on high, asserting that he was unworthy to be crucified in the same manner as his Lord. According to the story, Peter, fleeing Rome to avoid execution meets the risen Jesus. In the Latin translation, Peter asks Jesus, "Quo vadis? Peter then gains the courage to continue his ministry and returns to the city, where he is martyred. This story is commemorated in an Annibale Carracci painting.
The Church of Quo Vadis , near the Catacombs of Saint Callistus , contains a stone in which Jesus' footprints from this event are supposedly preserved, though this was apparently an ex-voto from a pilgrim , and indeed a copy of the original, housed in the Basilica of St Sebastian.
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- Life of Jesus in the New Testament.
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- Luke NIV - The Crucifixion of Jesus - As the - Bible Gateway.
- Refrigeration Equipment: A Servicing and Installation Handbook.
The ancient historian Josephus describes how Roman soldiers would amuse themselves by crucifying criminals in different positions, [] and it is likely that this would have been known to the author of the Acts of Peter. The position attributed to Peter's crucifixion is thus plausible, either as having happened historically or as being an invention by the author of the Acts of Peter. Death, after crucifixion head down, is unlikely to be caused by suffocation , the usual "cause of death in ordinary crucifixion".
Clement of Rome identifies Peter and Paul as the outstanding heroes of the faith. Catholic tradition holds that Peter's inverted crucifixion occurred at the spot now occupied by the Clementine Chapel in the grottoes of Saint Peter's Basilica, with the burial in Saint Peter's tomb nearby.
Caius in his Disputation Against Proclus A. For if you are willing to go to the Vatican or to the Ostian Way, you will find the trophies of those who founded this Church".
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In the early 4th century, the Emperor Constantine I decided to honour Peter with a large basilica. The slope of the Vatican Hill had to be excavated, even though the church could much more easily have been built on level ground only slightly to the south. There were also moral and legal issues, such as demolishing a cemetery to make room for the building.
The focal point of the Basilica, both in its original form and in its later complete reconstruction, is the altar located over what is said to be the point of Peter's burial. According to a letter quoted by Bede , Pope Vitalian sent a cross containing filings said to be from Peter's chains to the queen of Oswy , Anglo-Saxon King of Northumbria in , as well as unspecified relics of the saint to the king. In , human bones were found buried underneath the altar of St. The bones have been claimed by many to have been those of Peter.
In the s, items from the excavations beneath St Peter's Basilica were re-examined, and the bones of a male person were identified. A forensic examination found them to be a male of about 61 years of age from the 1st century. First Peter implies the author is in "Babylon", which has been held to be a coded reference to Rome [] 1 Peter 5: Most Biblical scholars [] [] believe that "Babylon" is a metaphor for the pagan Roman Empire at the time it persecuted Christians, before the Edict of Milan in In 4 Ezra , [] [] 2 Baruch [] and the Sibylline oracles , [] "Babylon" is a cryptic name for Rome.
According to the International Standard Bible Encyclopedia , "The characteristics ascribed to this Babylon apply to Rome rather than to any other city of that age: At that time in history, the ancient city of Babylon was no longer of any importance. The Great City is a great desert.
Another theory is that Babylon term refers to the Babylon in Egypt that was an important fortress city in Egypt, just north of today's Cairo and this, combined with the "greetings from Mark" 1 Peter 5: Clement of Alexandria in the sixth [book] of the Hypotyposeis cites the story, and the bishop of Hierapolis named Papias joins him in testifying that Peter mentions Mark in the first epistle, which they say he composed in Rome herself, and that he indicates this, calling the city more figuratively Babylon by these: If the reference is to Rome, it is the only biblical reference to Peter being there.
Many scholars regard both First and Second Peter as not having been authored by him, partly because other parts of the Acts of the Apostles seem to describe Peter as an illiterate fisherman. According to Catholic belief, Simon Peter was distinguished by Jesus to hold the first place of honor and authority.
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Furthermore, they consider every Pope to be Peter's successor and the rightful superior of all other bishops. The Catholic Church's recognition of Peter as head of its church on Earth with Christ being its heavenly head is based on its interpretation of two passages from the canonical gospels of the New Testament ; as well as sacred tradition. The first passage is John The Catholic Encyclopedia sees in this passage Jesus "charging [Peter] with the superintendency of all his sheep, without exception; and consequently of his whole flock, that is, of his own church". The second passage is Matthew I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hell will not overcome it.
Jesus could have said the following phrase in Aramaic , which could have spoken: You are a rock, and upon this rock will I build my Church and the gates of Sheol not will subdue it. Paul of Tarsus called Peter as "Cephas", [] in the same way that Jesus did.
To better understand what Christ meant, St. Though Peter be a rock, yet he is not a rock as Christ is. For Christ is the true unmoveable rock of himself, Peter is unmoveable by Christ the rock. For Jesus doth communicate and impart his dignities, not voiding himself of them, but holding them to himself, bestoweth them also upon others. He is the light, and yet 2. You are the light: In reference to Peter's occupation before becoming an Apostle, the popes wear the Fisherman's Ring , which bears an image of the saint casting his nets from a fishing boat.
The keys used as a symbol of the pope's authority refer to the "keys of the kingdom of Heaven" promised to Peter. Peter is often depicted in both Western and Eastern Christian art holding a key or a set of keys. Though the authenticity of this account has been challenged, the general consensus is that these are Jesus' words. The Roman Martyrology assigns 29 June as the feast day of both Peter and Paul , without thereby declaring that to be the day of their deaths.
Augustine of Hippo says in his Sermon But those two were one. Although their martyrdom occurred on different days, they were one. This is also the feast of both Apostles in the calendar of the Eastern Orthodox Church. In the Roman Rite , the feast of the Chair of Saint Peter is celebrated on 22 February, and the anniversary of the dedication of the two papal basilicas of Saint Peter's and Saint Paul's outside the Walls is held on 18 November.
Furthermore, since Jesus presumably spoke to Peter in their native Aramaic language , he would have used kepha in both instances. He was instructed by Christ to strengthen his brethren, i. Early Catholic Latin and Greek writers such as St. John Chrysostom considered the "foundation rock" as applying to both Peter personally and his confession of faith or the faith of his confession symbolically, as well as seeing Christ's promise to apply more generally to his twelve apostles and the Church at large.
Protestant counter-claims to the Catholic interpretation are largely based on the difference between the Greek words translated "Rock" in the Matthean passage. In popular-level writings, rather than in academic studies, they claim that in classical Attic Greek petros masculine generally meant "pebble", while petra feminine meant "boulder" or "cliff", and accordingly, taking Peter's name to mean "pebble," they argue that the "rock" in question cannot have been Peter, but something else, either Jesus himself, or the faith in Jesus that Peter had just professed.
Although Matthew 16 is used as a primary proof-text for the Catholic doctrine of Papal supremacy, some Protestant scholars say that prior to the Reformation of the 16th century, Matthew 16 was very rarely used to support papal claims, despite it being well documented as being used in the 3rd century by Stephen of Rome against Cyprian of Carriage in a "passionate disagreement" about baptism and in the 4th century by Pope Damasus as a claim to primacy as a lesson of the Arian Controversy for stricter discipline and centralized control.
They understand Jesus' remark to have been his affirmation of Peter's testimony that Jesus was the Son of God. Despite this claim, many Fathers saw a connection between Matthew Upon you, he says, I will build my Church; and I will give to you the keys, not to the Church. Other theologically conservative Christians, including Confessional Lutherans , also rebut comments made by Karl Keating and D.
Carson who claim that there is no distinction between the words petros and petra in Koine Greek. The Lutheran theologians further note that:. We honor Peter and in fact some of our churches are named after him, but he was not the first pope, nor was he Roman Catholic.
If you read his first letter, you will see that he did not teach a Roman hierarchy, but that all Christians are royal priests. The same keys given to Peter in Matthew 16 are given to the whole church of believers in Matthew Oscar Cullmann , a Lutheran theologian and distinguished Church historian, disagrees with Luther and the Protestant reformers who held that by "rock" Christ did not mean Peter, but meant either himself or the faith of His followers.
He believes the meaning of the original Aramaic is very clear: Yet, Cullmann sharply rejects the Catholic claim that Peter began the papal succession. Cullmann concludes that while Peter was the original head of the apostles, Peter was not the founder of any visible church succession.
There are other Protestant scholars who also partially defend the historical Catholic position about "Rock. Moreover, even in Attic Greek, in which the regular meaning of petros was a smallish "stone," there are instances of its use to refer to larger rocks, as in Sophocles , Oedipus at Colonus v. In Greek, of any period, the feminine noun petra could not be used as the given name of a male, which may explain the use of Petros as the Greek word with which to translate Aramaic Kepha.
Yet, still other Protestant scholars believe that Jesus in fact did mean to single out Peter as the very rock which he will build upon, but that the passage does nothing to indicate a continued succession of Peter's implied position. They assert that Matthew uses the demonstrative pronoun taute , which allegedly means "this very" or this same , when he refers to the rock on which Jesus' church will be built.
He also uses the Greek word for "and", kai. It is alleged that when a demonstrative pronoun is used with kai , the pronoun refers back to the preceding noun. The second rock Jesus refers to must then be the same rock as the first one; and if Peter is the first rock he must also be the second. Unlike Oscar Cullmann, Confessional Lutherans and many other Protestant apologists agree that it's meaningless to elaborate the meaning of Rock by looking at the Aramaic language, this is true that the Jews spoke mostly Aramaic at home, however in public they usually spoke Greek.
The few Aramaic words spoken by Jesus in public were unusual and that is why they are noted as such. Lutheran historians even report that the Catholic church itself didn't, at least unanimously, regard Peter as the Rock until the s:. This Creed binds Rome to explain the Scriptures only according to the unanimous consent of the Fathers. In the year when the Fathers gathered and the pope declared his infallibility, the cardinals were not in agreement on Matthew 16, They had five different interpretations.
Seventeen insisted, Peter is the rock. Sixteen held that Christ is the rock. Eight were emphatic that the whole apostolic college is the rock. Forty-four said, Peter's faith is the rock, The remainder looked upon the whole body of believers as the rock. Another title used for Peter is Coryphaeus , which could be translated as "Choir-director", or lead singer. The New Testament is not seen by the Orthodox as supporting any extraordinary authority for Peter with regard to faith or morals. The Orthodox also hold that Peter did not act as leader at the Council of Jerusalem , but as merely one of a number who spoke.
The final decision regarding the non-necessity of circumcision and certain prohibitions was spelled out by James, the Brother of the Lord though Catholics hold James merely reiterated and fleshed out what Peter had said, regarding the latter's earlier divine revelation regarding the inclusion of Gentiles. Peter but the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople sends a delegation each year to Rome to participate in the celebration of the feast of Sts.
In the Ravenna Document of 13 October , the representatives of the Eastern Orthodox Church agreed that "Rome, as the Church that 'presides in love' according to the phrase of St. Ignatius of Antioch To the Romans, Prologue , occupied the first place in the taxis , and that the bishop of Rome was therefore the protos among the patriarchs, if the Papacy unites with the Orthodox Church. They disagree, however, on the interpretation of the historical evidence from this era regarding the prerogatives of the bishop of Rome as protos , a matter that was already understood in different ways in the first millennium.
With regard to Jesus' words to Peter, "Thou art Peter and upon this rock I will build my church", the Orthodox hold Christ is referring to the confession of faith, not the person of Peter as that upon which he will build the church. There are also two feast days in the year which are dedicated to him:.
They were fully convinced of the unique office of Peter in the primitive Christian community. Ephrem , Aphrahat and Maruthas who were supposed to have been the best exponents of the early Syriac tradition unequivocally acknowledge the office of Peter. When Christ gave his own name "Kepha" to Simon he was giving him participation in the person and office of Christ. Christ who is the Kepha and shepherd made Simon the chief shepherd in his place and gave him the very name Kepha and said that on Kepha he would build the Church. Aphrahat shared the common Syriac tradition.
For him Kepha is in fact another name of Jesus, and Simon was given the right to share the name. The person who receives somebody else's name also obtains the rights of the person who bestows the name. Aphrahat makes the stone taken from Jordan a type of Peter. Again he wrote in his commentary on Deuteronomy that Moses brought forth water from "rock" Kepha for the people and Jesus sent Simon Kepha to carry his teachings among nations.
God accepted him and made him the foundation of the Church and called him Kepha. When he speaks about the transfiguration of Christ he calls him Simon Peter , the foundation of the Church. Ephrem also shared the same view. In the Armenian version of De Virginitate records that Peter the rock shunned honour. Both Aphrahat and Ephrem represent the authentic tradition of the Syrian Church. The different orders of liturgies used for sanctification of Church buildings, marriage, ordination etcetera, reveal that the primacy of Peter is a part of living faith of the Church.
While Mormons accept apostolic succession from Peter, they reject papal successors as illegitimate. In interpreting Matthew McConkie stated, "The things of God are known only by the power of his Spirit," [] and "that which the world calls Mormonism is based upon the rock of revelation.
Pure, perfect, personal revelation—this is the rock! Muslims consider Jesus a prophet of God. The Qur'an also speaks of Jesus's disciples but does not mention their names, instead referring to them as "helpers to the prophet of God ". Shia Muslims see a parallel in the figure of Peter to Ali at Muhammad 's time.
They look upon Ali as being the vicegerent , with Muhammad being the prophet ; likewise, they see Peter as the vicegerent , behind Jesus the prophet and Masih. Peter's role as the first proper leader of the church is also seen by Shias to be a parallel to their belief in Ali as the first caliph after Muhammad. Whenever he decided to go fishing, he would tie up his weekly food into seven parcels, and every day he would eat one of them, and when he had reached the seventh, he would know that the Sabbath had arrived, and thereupon would observe it.
According to an old Jewish tradition, Simon Peter joined the early Christians at the decision of the Rabbis. Worried that early Christianity's similarity to Judaism would lead people to mistake it as a branch of Judaism, he was chosen to join them. As he moved up in rank, he would be able to lead them into forming their own, distinct belief system. Despite this, he was said to remain a practicing Jew, and is ascribed with the authorship of the Nishmas prayer. Traditionally, two canonical epistles 1 and 2 Peter and several apocryphal works have been attributed to Peter.
The New Testament includes two letters epistles ascribed to Peter. Both demonstrate a high quality of cultured and urban Greek, at odds with the linguistic skill that would ordinarily be expected of an Aramaic -speaking fisherman, who would have learned Greek as a second or third language. The textual features of these two epistles are such that a majority of scholars doubt that they were written by the same hand. Wallace who maintains that Peter was the author writes that, for many scholars, "the issue of authorship is already settled, at least negatively: However, he later states, "Although a very strong case has been made against Petrine authorship of 2 Peter, we believe it is deficient Taken together, these external and internal arguments strongly suggest the traditional view, viz.
Of the two epistles, the first epistle is considered the earlier. A number of scholars have argued that the textual discrepancies with what would be expected of the biblical Peter are due to it having been written with the help of a secretary or as an amanuensis. The two Epistles attributed to St.
Peter differ in style, character, and the construction of the words, which proves that according to the exigencies of the moment St.
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Peter made use of different interpreters Epistle — To Hedibia []. Some have seen a reference to the use of a secretary in the sentence: Ehrman in his book Forged states that "scholars now widely recognize that when the author indicates that he wrote the book 'through Silvanus', he is indicating not the name of his secretary, but the person who was carrying his letter to the recipients.
The Roman historian Tacitus and the biographer Suetonius do both record that Nero persecuted Christians, and Tacitus dates this to immediately after the fire that burned Rome in Christian tradition, for example Eusebius of Caesarea History book 2, Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ, to God's elect, strangers in the world, scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia, who have been chosen according to the foreknowledge of God the Father, through the sanctifying work of the Spirit, for obedience to Jesus Christ and sprinkling by his blood: Grace and peace be yours in abundance.
Those scholars who believe that the epistle dates from the time of Domitian argue that Nero's persecution of Christians was confined to the city of Rome itself, and did not extend to the Asian provinces mentioned in 1 Pet 1: The Second Epistle of Peter , on the other hand, appears to have been copied, in part, from the Epistle of Jude , and some modern scholars date its composition as late as c. Some scholars argue the opposite, that the Epistle of Jude copied Second Peter, while others contend an early date for Jude and thus observe that an early date is not incompatible with the text.
According to the supposed visions of Anne Catherine Emmerich , Simon was a pagan. The Romans recognized he wasn't a Jew by his clothes and then chose him to oblige him to help Jesus carry the cross. So since Simon Peter fails to take up his cross, Simon the Cyrene does so instead.
The Cyrenes were famous at the time as a sect of hedonistic, atheist philosophers, and as part of a failed military uprising that it, a military messiah rather than a spiritual one. Hence, figuratively, the military messiah and the human philosopher are put on the cross at this time when Simon the Cyrene takes up the cross [11]. Lending further credence to this is the naming of the two sons, Alexander and Rufus. There is no literal reason to mention them, nor are they mentioned elsewhere, despite the traditions alluded to in this article.
But the most famous Alexander of the time was Alexander the Great , a symbol of military power.
The most famous Rufus was Musonius Rufus who was a pacifist philosopher. According to Origen, Rufus was second only to Socrates in fame [12]. So, figuratively, the worldly offspring of Simon the Cyrene are military power and human philosophy. Mark is saying that neither way is correct and both should be sacrificed on the cross.
On a purely literal reading, it is strange that someone should be pressed into service by the Roman guards; that the person's name be recorded here and nowhere else ; and that the sons names are recorded again here and nowhere else, and with no narrative reason for doing so.
On a figurative reading, Mark reveals great brilliance. It mirrors Simon Peter's failure to "deny himself" and "take up his cross". It demonstrates the gospel's inclusiveness anyone who takes up the cross, regardless of who they are, will be saved ; and it shows this with respect to military power and human wisdom.
Simon of Cyrene is venerated as a saint in the Roman Catholic Church, with a feast day assigned to December 1. It has as its guiding principle "sharing the burden" which it uses to explain its approach to providing services to homeless and other disadvantaged groups in society, often using volunteers. According to some Gnostic traditions, Simon of Cyrene, by mistaken identity, suffered the events leading up to the crucifixion, and died on the cross instead of Jesus.