For Bourdieu, realism takes the real to be relational. This relationality is, for instance, visible in the relations between the different types of capital that Bourdieu speaks of, as well as in the interconnectedness of his concepts of habitus, capital, doxa, and illusio. A major argument of her research is that. They emphasize the role of socialization in the construction of habitus, which together with the capital trainee translators can gain, are both part of, and influential in, their specialization in the field of translator training.
His structuralist orientation, reflected in his practice theory and related concepts of agency, field, habitus , capital , doxa and illusio , leaves little doubt of the relevance of his ideas to the sociological analysis of identity, given that, as social agents, individuals work to create social structures which construct their identity in return.
Based on this structure, habitus creates beliefs, practices, and feelings and it is structured by existing conditions Grenfell Habitus, as mentioned above, operates along with other factors. For what we know as practice, Bourdieu presents an equation as follows: Habitus helps us shape our perspective towards the social world in a rather revolutionary way. By the same token, Stets and Burke We must go back and forth and understand how social structure is the accomplishment of actors, but also how actors always act within the social structure they create. In this game, individuals, groups and institutions compete for better positions.
Social agents learn the rules of the game gradually. They are only equipped with their own points of view. They take time to develop and they are never perfect. ANT has undergone some modifications: The main tenet of the social constructivism paradigm is the construction of knowledge through social interactions, including those in classrooms, hence the significance of collaboration and group work.
Thus, it can be argued that social constructivism, and by extension ANT, favors a collective approach to identity and its construction due to its concepts of network and translation. The central notion of an actor or agent or actant is understood to include both human and nonhuman agents: The network has no centre, all the elements are interdependent. Important roles are played by knowledge systems and by economic factors, as well as by people and by technical aids. Causality is not unidirectional: The theory distinguishes various kinds of relation between the nodes of a network […].
The interaction between agents or actants is called translation , a concept which ANT borrows from Michel Serres, as Barry Intermediaries do not affect the forces and meanings they are to transfer but mediators can modify them Latour, Thus, the identity of actants is dependent on their roles as mediator or intermediary, which can also change into each other.
Most theories are developed by theorists through the evaluation of previous theories and approaches. Bourdieusian approaches tend to reduce the agent to the translator, and only consider agency from the individualistic perspective Buzelin Starting from a general assumption of the existence of distinctions between Western and Eastern identities, we conducted an identity survey of Iranian and Italian undergraduate trainee translators, to test our hypotheses and to see to what extent the findings would fall within Bourdieu and ANT theories.
Additionally, the correlation between personal, social and professional identities among students was briefly examined. A total of trainee translators participated in our survey: The students were from four Iranian and four Italian universities: The age and gender distribution of the two groups of students are given in Tables 1 and 2 below. AIQ-IV is a questionnaire that measures identity orientation in the four aspects of personal, relational, social and collective identities.
In the original AIQ-IV questionnaire, there are 10 special items that are not scored on scales, two of which were included in our modified questionnaire. The research population was provided with the online questionnaire with an extended time period within which to respond and the responses were recorded both separately for each respondent and in a summary of all responses. To help our analysis, the responses of Iranian and Italian students were recorded separately.
Then, the total mean scores were compared and interpreted. Additionally, based on the total scores of the responses to each item, items that showed marked distinctions among the two groups of students were singled out as potential indicators of a number of meaningful and enlightening contrasts. Comparing the mean values for all items, the items whose mean scores showed a certain variation were identified and marked for this purpose.
The procedure was as follows: The resultant criterion values were. Finally, a microanalysis of identity scores based on three age groups of 19 or younger, male , and years old was carried out in order to find out more about the correlation of the identity aspects. Figure 1 compares Iranian and Italian undergraduate translator trainees in three aspects of their identities.
A Comparison of trainee translators' three identity aspects based on mean Likert scale values. As Figure 1 shows, the Iranian and Italian students surveyed in this study, show a contrast in terms of their personal and social identities where the former tend to have a stronger social identity and the latter a more marked sense of personal identity.
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This implies that Italian students are more inclined towards individualism and self-dependence while Iranian students prefer interdependence; a difference that may reflect overall differences between Iranian and Italian, or Eastern and Western, societies. As for the correlation between personal and social identities with professional identity, no meaningful correlation was observed, indicating that either there are more factors that have to be taken into account or some complementary data is required.
We stated above that a special analysis was carried out of those items which produced significantly different based on the overall scores between Iranians and Italians. The following items were selected for further interpretation in each aspect of identity. My personal values and moral standards Item 7: Places where I live or where I was raised.
A comparison of personal identity marked items using mean Liker scale values. The Iranian students' score was significantly higher than their Italian counterparts in Item 1 but lower in Item 7, which might indicate that although Iranian students display a somewhat more social and less personal identity orientation, they might care more their values and morality issues. On the other hand Italian students felt more intensely and emotionally about their living environments. A comparison of social identity marked items using mean Likert scale values.
The results shown in Figure 3 imply that Italians are less concerned about their social popularity. Popularity, as social capital, is a way to earn symbolic capital, which in turn can be arguably converted into other types of capital, particularly cultural capital. There were two items identified as marked with respect to professional identity, which are listed below:. Being considered a reliable and organized co-worker Item My future job despite its difficulties and low income.
A comparison of professional identity marked items using mean Likert scale values. Although Italian students showed a higher propensity for individual work, they seem to value professional qualities when working with other people to a higher extent, which is indicated in Item 23; they consider it more important to be valuable co-workers through being reliable and organized. Being reliable is a highly interpersonal attribute while being organized tends to be a personal characteristic yet with palpable outcomes for the people around us. Furthermore, in reference to Item 24, Italian students seemed to consider their future job much more important than Iranian students, a result which could imply two things: Overall, in the majority of the professional identity items, the Italian students demonstrated a stronger orientation, which may indicate that they generally have a better image of their field-related abilities and prospects for developing their careers in translation.
As a final step in this survey, we explored the correlation between personal and social identity aspects on the one hand with professional identity on the other. To this end, three age groups of trainee translators were compared in terms of their mean identity scores.
Figure 5 and Figure 6 display the findings, indicating a chiefly positive correlation between the three identity aspects in the age groups analyzed — except for Italian students of 19 years or younger. Another finding was that because the comparison of the mean scores of personal and social identities in these three age groups did not differ significantly across the two national groups, we can conclude that the excluded age group, female students aged , had a significant influence on the overall identity variation between Iranian and Italian students.
The different items of the questionnaire, as well as the identity aspects it addressed, were related to the concepts discussed in the sociological theories. The results of our empirical analysis point to a stronger social identity and habitus for Iranian students and a stronger personal and professional identity orientation and habitus on the part of the Italian students; a result which suggests that social activities in translator training may be particularly suitable in an Iranian context, while personal activities maybe more suitable when training translators in an Italian context.
In addition, we found a predominantly positive correlation between personal and social identities with professional identity among the age groups we decided to study for the purpose of correlation analysis. With reference to our research questions, we are now in a position to draw some conclusions: An implication of this study in translator training might be that once we understand that different societies have different conceptions of identity as well as various identities and identity construction patterns — for example, the general distinction between individualistic Western and the social Eastern identity — then our training priorities will differ, with implications for our translation curricula, pedagogies and teaching methods.
Additionally, the types of power distribution observed in the two theories have clear implications for the description of educational practices, including translator training. Introducing the two sociologies into the classroom allows learners to experience different identity constructions, which is recommended today. We would like to extend our deep gratitude to Prof. Marcello Soffritti and Prof. Christopher Rundle for their invaluable help with the project this study was part of.
We would also like to thank Prof. Silvia Bernardini for her constructive comments on a draft of this manuscript.
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Our heartfelt thanks also go to all the Italian and Iranian colleagues who helped with the distribution of our survey as well as the survey participants. These items describe different aspects of identity. Please read each item carefully and consider how it applies to you. The full scale is:. Not important to my sense of who I am 1 2 3 4 5 Extremely important to my sense of who I am. Journal of International Studies Bourdieu, Pierre Outline of a theory of practice , trans.
Nice, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Bourdieu, Pierre In other words: Essays towards a reflexive sociology , trans. Measurement Instrument Database for the Social Science, www. Grenfell, Michael ed Pierre Bourdieu: Empowerment from Theory to Practice , Manchester, St. Latour, Bruno Reassembling the social: Bartrina eds , Oxon, Routledge: Heine, Toshio Yamagishi, and Tatsuya Kameda eds. Snel Trampus, Rita D. After completing his MA in Translation Studies at Shahid Beheshti University, he started his translator training career in and has ever since taught undergraduate translation courses mainly at Arak University, where he got his BA in English Translation in He attended the University of Bologna once as a PhD student in , and another time as a doctoral visiting student in Starting from the definitions of culture, law, technology as well as legal and technical culture respectively, the aim of this paper is to point out the different degrees of cultural specificity in law and technology and in legal and technical language and texts.
The paper will also show to what extend the differences within the various dimensions of cultural specificity lead to differences in methods and procedures of translation. Ausgehend von den Definitionen von Kultur, Recht und Technik einerseits sowie von Rechts- und Technikkultur andererseits wird in diesem Beitrag der unterschiedliche Grad von Kulturspezifik in Recht und Technik und in ihren sprachlich-textuellen Manifestationen herausgearbeitet. Kulturspezifik, Rechtssprache, technische Sprache, cultural specificity, legal language, technical language.
Ziel des Beitrags ist es zum einen, den unterschiedlichen Grad der Kulturspezifik in Recht und Technik und ihren sprachlich-textuellen Manifestationen herauszuarbeiten. Rechtliche Regeln werden, wie von Marschelke Nutzung einerseits bestimmte Voraussetzungen mitbringen muss, dessen Erfordernissen aber andererseits auch bei der Gestaltung der Technik Rechnung zu tragen ist. Recht und die damit verbundene Kultur sind m. Bei qualitativer Betrachtung stellt sich dann heraus, dass Technikkultur im Korpus nur mit den Termini Stiftung und Verein verbunden ist.
Welche kulturspezifischen Unterschiede bestehen zwischen Recht und Technik auf der sprachlichen und der textuellen Ebene? Welche Unterschiede zwischen Recht und Technik wirken sich in besonderer Weise auf die kulturspezifischen Unterschiede aus? Rechtssprache ist in erster Linie eine Institutionensprache Busse Diese erfordert eine doppelte rechtlich-sprachliche Abstraktion. Civil Law - vs.
Nur in mehrsprachigen nationalen Rechtsordnungen Beisp.: Schweizer Recht und in supranationalen Rechtsordnungen Beisp.: In der Technik dagegen sind es tendenziell ein und dieselben Begriffe, die durch unterschiedliche Benennungen zum Ausdruck gebracht werden. Bei der Entwicklung der technischen Terminologien gibt es jedoch, wie von Arntz Dennoch gibt es auch in der Technik Bereiche, in denen die Terminologie nicht systematisch genormt ist, so die Kfz-Technik Arntz Definitionen sind dabei nicht nur ein Recht-, sondern auch ein Technik-Thema, was anhand der nationalen und internationalen Normung sichtbar wird z.
Auch gibt es zahlreiche Terminologieportale mit genormter Technik-Terminologie z. Im Recht ist es, v. So gibt es beispielsweise von den das Ermittlungs- und das Zwischenverfahren des italienischen Strafprozesses kennzeichnenden neun Textsorten nur drei, die eine Entsprechung in den vergleichbaren Abschnitten des deutschen Strafprozesses haben:. Gliederungskonventionen in deutschen und italienischen Gesetzestexten. Schweizer Recht oder supranationalen Rechtsordnung Beisp.: Eine wichtige Rolle spielen in diesem Zusammenhang Definitionen vgl. Diese sind allerdings einerseits nicht zu jedem Terminus oder Begriff vorhanden.
Dies ist, wie von Reinart Diese kann in der Technik auch die Inhaltsbestandteile bzw. Apply the parking brake firmly. Shift the automatic transaxle to Park or manual transaxle to Neutral. Da Ausgangs- und Zielkultur hier allerdings zusammenfallen, kann allenfalls von einer Anpassung an Sprachtraditionen die Rede sein. Die sich hier manifestierenden Besonderheiten der Rechtssprache als Fachsprache vgl.
Der Beitrag basiert auf einem Vortrag, den ich dort am Ein internationales Handbuch zur Fachsprachenforschung und Terminologiewissenschaft , 2. Hoffmann, Lothar Kommunikationsmittel Fachsprache. Le-Hong, Kai und Peter A. Traduction de textes juridiques: Patti, Salvatore a cura di Codice Civile Italiano. Perspectives for the New Millenium. Akten des Symposiums Mannheim, 3. Tilch, Horst und Frank Arloth Hrsg. Bilder und audiovisuelle Materialien in der Technik generell eine wichtige Rolle spielen Arntz Her other research areas include legal language, notably notarial language, didactics of specialised translation, terminography and lexicography.
Eva Wiesmann also works als a freelance legal translator and lexicographer. Political opinion articles as an ideologically-loaded type of political discourse are largely produced to serve the society to which they belong. When translated, they could be manipulated to meet the socio-political needs of the target society. Translation Studies scholars have adopted a variety of critical approaches and methodologies to account for such manipulations, inspired by the principles of Critical Discourse Analysis CDA and under the critical translation movement.
To achieve this objective, a collection of 31 English opinion articles, along with their corresponding Persian translations, are analyzed. At the textual level, however, some modifications are suggested. Critical Discourse Analysis, CDA, ideological square, manipulation, news translation, political discourse, opinion articles. Regardless of their methodology, all the scholars have unanimously agreed that the political context in which the target text TT is produced leads the trans-editor s [1] to manipulate the TT.
Manipulation is a term originally concerned with literary translation and was first used by the scholars of the Manipulation School e. Some scholars consider it as translation acts by means of which linguistic and cultural barriers are transcended and communication is facilitated e. Therefore, manipulation has also been considered a filter through which a specific representation of ST is promoted e.
The current study considers manipulation from the latter perspective. The question is, which analytical framework can serve to investigate manipulation in translation from this perspective? First, the appropriateness of the framework will be argued. Then, we will show how the framework links with Translation Studies and serves as a model for investigating manipulation in political discourse translation through the analysis of 31 Persian translations of English opinion articles.
Since the ideological turn in Translation Studies, ideological and political factors have drawn the attention of translation scholars to the study of translation context. That is, CDA and TS share the idea that textual features should not be interpreted without considering the ideological context of text production and reception. Ietcu-Fairclough points out that translators work under certain socio-political conventions and restrictions which serve the wider values and ideologies of power holders in society.
Thus, the strategies employed by translators are aimed at the production of a text in line with set values. This is even more significant when it comes to political discourse translation, in general, and opinion articles, in particular. Political opinion articles, as opposed to hard news articles, are believed to be significantly loaded with ideologies Bell ; van Dijk As van Dijk That is, they are consistent with the beliefs and values of the dominant socio-political frameworks of the institutions themselves and the wider society to which they belong Hodge and Kress, Likewise, Vuorinen and Darwish maintain that translation in news agencies is influenced by institutional policies and ideologies to justify and control actions and their outcomes.
Therefore, translators are not the only people who decide on the translation; their work is edited by others such as senior translators, editors and the chief editor Hursti ; Bielsa Over the past few years, translation scholars have attempted to apply CDA in their studies to look at the influence of such conditions on news translation e.
It should be noted that these studies are flawed for two reasons. Second, others are case studies which analyse a single article e. Therefore, there is a need for a study with a broader set of data which goes beyond mere lexical analysis. The portrayal of the conflicts between Iran and the Western world have also been among the points of interest in investigating the influence of ideology on the news language.
They argue that the translation strategies used are realized through the purposeful application of linguistic expressions both at lexical and grammatical level or non-linguistic elements such as images, photos, and graphic drawings. Sanatifar and Jalalian Daghigh , investigate, from a socionarrative perspective, how the Iranian media, through translation, directed the public perception of the social and political realities about its nuclear program through reframing as it was already framed in the Western media. Unlike Khanjan et al. Other studies have compared Western news texts in English with Iranian-Persian texts covering the same topic.
The results of their study show that the British media delegitimized the Iranian nuclear program, whereas the Iranian media portrayed it positively. Their study highlights a few points. First, they have gone beyond mere analysis of lexical choices by taking transitivity procedures, namely nominalization, and passivization, into account. Second, by looking at the domestic media, which support government policies, and by comparing it with the Western media, they shed light on socio-political factors, which based on CDA, explain different uses of language by the media.
Nevertheless, without denying the merit of these studies, it is noticeable that by merely looking at parallel texts produced in two different contexts, it is not possible to uncover manipulations carried out by news trans-editors. At the macro level is the society which is concerned with power relationships at the level of local interlocutors and global societal structures. In his approach, social power is understood as a means of controlling the mind and action of groups and people. At the micro level is discourse, which refers to various discourse structures language encapsulating ideologies.
Van Dijk points out that the meaning of the text is embedded in the discourse by language producers, and as such, it exists and is represented in their minds. He characterizes it as a polarization of Us and Them through which the positive and negative features of in-group Us and out-group Them are de emphasized by applying 24 discourse structures. That is, the polarization between Us and Them is manifested via all linguistic dimensions of a text, which are interpreted as one of the following overall strategies:.
Besides the 24 discourse structures identified by van Dijk , ideology may be represented in the text via syntactic features of language as well. Since van Dijk has not included these features in his framework, the linguistic toolkits which are set forth by Hodge and Kress , and Fowler and Fairclough , i. In the following, a background of Iranian media policies and what forms the ideological Us and Them in the country is provided.
In , with the Islamic revolution in Iran, a referendum was held and the Islamic Republic of Iran as the socio-political system of the country was officially recognized. Accordingly, in the same year, a new constitution was ratified to adjust the rules and norms to the newly-established system. In addition, having the support of the European powers, specifically the UK, the USA has attempted to stop the country from being a nuclear power in the region Hastedt The foreign policy of Iran is also reflected in its constitution.
On the one hand, Article 56 of Chapter 8 of the Iranian constitution categorizes a number of countries, mainly the U. A and Israel, as hostile governments. These points have also been stressed in Iranian media law. Chapter 4 of the law bans several cases, among which are those that noticeably. Chapter 2 of the law states the missions of the media. Among the missions described in this chapter are those that. The data collection began by looking at the target text published on the Iranian news website Diplomacy-e-Irani Iranian Diplomacy.
A total of 31 Persian news opinion articles, which were all translated from English into Persian, were obtained from the archive of the news website within a period of 3 months, dated from April 1, , to June 30, In fact, more and more ideologically-loaded articles were then being published. Mic, Executive Magazine, and The Atlantic. After identifying the ideological significance of the source texts see Figure 2 , through comparing the source ST and target text TT , the ideological mismatches are described, categorized and evaluated.
Analysis of the source text per se suggests that the ST representations can be categorized into four major patterns as follows:. In the following section, the results obtained from comparing the ST and the TT are presented. The given examples reflect the manipulation patterns in Persian translation of the opinion articles which are based on various procedures.
Since the inclusion of all procedures falls beyond the scope of the study, the complete list of the procedures is separately provided in Appendix A Jalalian The best means of disarming Iran is to insist on a simple and basic redline […] Takeyh, Comparison of the ST and the TT shows some mismatches, which could be explained in terms of ideological manipulations. In fact, by categorizing a particular group who favor the Islamic Republic the political regime , the ST author refers to a minority who supports the nuclear program, but this is generalized to Iranians, as a case of creating populism in the TT.
This is a change of perspective which not only filters a negative depiction of Iran, but also, may represent the West negatively; thus, a target reader may interpret this as stopping a program which could be the right of a nation. Therefore, in all the cases discussed above, there is an attempt by the trans-editor s to block the negative representations of the in-group US in the TT.
The procedures of blocking are listed and explained in Appendix A. It would have to agree to completely open all Iranian nuclear facilities to regular inspections by the IAEA which has thus far refused to do so Purzycki, First Iran would give permission to the inspectors to enter all its nuclear sites. Some information may remain implicit, as it may be shared knowledge with the recipients and inferred from context. However, there are other reasons for implicitation. For example, for cultural purposes such as politeness, an unacceptable expression might become implicit. In addition, political motivations may lead an author to leave an expression implicit van Dijk, While negative features of an in-group may remain implicit or mitigated through euphemism, the negative features of an out-group may be explicated van Dijk, However, this is omitted in the TT.
As such, implicitation is used to demote the negative representation of the in-group in the TT. At the last round of talks, in February in Kazakhstan, the United States and five otherworld powers offered Tehran modest concessions, including softening limits on trade using gold and other precious metals, and easing some restrictions on petrochemicalexports, if the Iranians agreed to halt production of medium-enriched uranium.
The Iranians did not accept the offer Ritcher Disclaimer is a combination of positive self-representation and negative other-representation and saves face by emphasizing the positive features of an in-group and representing an out-group negatively by focusing on their negative features. In the above example, both positive representations of the out-group and negative representation of the in-group are expressed via disclaimer.
In fact, the ST depicts the out-group positively by stating that a good offer from the United States is turned down by the in-group. However, it is blocked from entering the TT by complete omission. In fact, the negative representation of the in-group, as well as the positive representation of the out-group are both manipulated in the TT. Groups and individuals might be addressed by neutral terms.
Thus, a polarized term used to refer to an in-group positively and an out-group negatively is a marker of the ideology of a group towards its in-groups and out-groups van Dijk, In the above example, the author quotes what Ashton, the leader of the Western powers in negotiations, states on the proposal which has been given by the West. As can be seen in the ST, this part of the text is a positive representation of the West and their proposal. This reveals that the trans-editors consider themselves to be members of the target society. As such, the positive representation of the Westerners is demoted by omitting some information.
Based on my personal experience, Rowhani is a polite and open character Fischer Based on my personal experience, Rowhani is a polite man with open character. In discourse, an actor can be described as a manifestation of a group ideology towards what they consider as in-group and out-group. Comparison of the ST and the TT shows no ideological manipulation. As a result, the positive representation of the in-group is preserved in the TT. Unlike outgoing president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, he surrounds himself with very skilful and experienced diplomats Fischer His ongoing balanced policies in past posts indicate that he is a sophisticated person.
These translations are both in line with the meaning of the ST words. However, these studies have not placed these objects within their whole context. Nor has enough attention been given to the relevance of Deruta maiolica, in particular, to the lives of Renaissance women. Because Deruta maiolica was produced for middle class consumers using unsophisticated and frequently repeated imagery, it has often been overlooked as an object worthy of study.
Yet, since these ceramic objects were so intrinsic to middle class life, and in particular, to the lives of women, and were placed specifically in their daily sphere of activity [Figures 1, 2; pp. The analysis of Deruta maiolica requires an interrelation of many disciplines, because these objects can be understood only through an integration of approaches and methods to produce new knowledge about the Renaissance and the position of women. The discipline of Art History is of fundamental importance to the study of Deruta maiolica.
Oxford University Press, A r t h is tor ica l methodolog ies - i n part icular, the analys is o f imagery - exp la in the s ign i f i cance o f v i sua l convent ions encoded i n the imagery o f these plates. These scholars were the f irst to d raw attention to the fundamental d iss imi lar i t ies between Renaissance portraits dep ic t ing male and female f igures, ref lect ing the dif ferent soc ia l roles o f m e n and w o m e n i n Rena issance Italy.
The i r examinat ion o f female court portraiture suggests that its convent ions represented the standards o f femin ine behav iour considered necessary i n a l l levels o f I tal ian society. T h i s thesis w i l l argue that the Deru ta artisans bor rowed v i sua l convent ions f r om female court portraiture. The artisans d i d this because they recogn ized that ar istocrat ic w o m e n were considered mode ls for Renaissance m idd le c lass w o m e n. M i d d l e c lass w o m e n were expected to deport themselves i n the same chaste and modest manner as their noble counterparts.
They learned such behaviour f r om the v i sua l convent ions encoded i n Deru ta ma io l i ca. Thornton, "When is a Portrait not a Portrait: Portrait in the Renaissance, eds. British Museum Press, , pp. Ashgate Books, , pp.
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University of Chicago Press, , pp. Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies, , pp. Simons, "Portrait, Portrayal and Idealization: Clarendon Press, , pp. Simons, "Women in Frames: Feminism and Art History ed. Icon Editions, , pp. Rogers, "The Decorum of Women's Beauty: A s this study w i l l show, the not ion that Deru ta m a i o l i c a pottery is noth ing but a vu lgar iza t ion o f h igh art is s impl is t ic and not consistent w i t h current scho lar ly v iews.
The v isua l convent ions o f Deru ta ma io l i ca , p rev ious ly conce ived as backward and regressive, are, i n fact, a representation o f part icular conservat ive trends favoured by the m idd le c lass, representing standards o f behaviour for w o m e n. A rchaeo log i ca l studies are also important. Th rough their archaeolog ica l f i e ldwork and their analys is o f documents i n the archives i n Perug ia , we learn o f the evo lu t ion o f Deru ta pottery from the p ro to -ma io l i ca stage i n the 1 4 t h century to its cu lm ina t ion i n m a i o l i c a pottery o f the 1 6 t h century, and h o w the needs o f the monastery were responsib le for such changes.
Th i s w i l l be d iscussed i n greater depth w i t h reference to the development o f images o f St. Convegno Internazionale della Cerarnica May-June , pp. Without reference to the complex Italian literary tradition of feminine exemplarity, dating back to the 13th century, it would be impossible to understand properly the moral background underlying the visual conventions found on Deruta maiolica pottery.
This literary tradition reflects the serious and near obsessive interest by writers, philosophers and theologians Boccaccio, Bettussi, da Voragine, Petrarch, Cherubino of Siena and Alberti regarding the issue of women and their role and deportment in the family and society. In order to understand Deruta pottery it is necessary to consider this tradition and the ideals it promoted. However, the study of Deruta maiolica is also grounded upon the literature of Christian Humanism.
Ancient texts such as the Bible and the Classics, influenced Renaissance notions of women inasmuch as the virtuous female figures portrayed in these texts were upheld as worthy of emulation. Thus, it is necessary to look at the writings of early Christian Fathers such as St. Augustine Epistulae and St. Jerome Epistulae , and medieval authors, such as St. It is only through an examination of diverse literary sources that we can properly comprehend the background and meaning of Deruta maiolica in women's lives.
The work of the economic historian Richard Goldthwaite is most instructive in terms of understanding the rise of the urban Renaissance middle class and their corresponding ability to afford Deruta maiolica, which was, in fact, a luxury item. Goldthwaite's work is critical to this study as it describes the economic transformation of 15th century Italy and its effect on the Italian middle class.
As a result of this transformation there was an explosion in the production of high quality Deruta maiolica 10 pottery after , and i f it were not for the increased spending power o f m idd le c lass fami l ies , the Deru ta artisans w o u l d not have had a market for their re lat ive ly expens ive p ieces. Second ly , this increase i n m idd le c lass wea l th had rami f icat ions i n terms o f the devot iona l l i fe o f these fami l ies. Increased af f luence permit ted fami l ies , encouraged b y the F ranc i scan Order , to bu i l d pr ivate chapels w i t h i n their households, requ i r ing the acqu is i t ion o f l i turg ica l apparati in the f o rm o f Deru ta maio l i ca to make them funct iona l.
F ranc iscan fr iars, w h o were it inerate and l i ved among the la i ty , per fo rmed re l ig ious r i tuals, such as the Euchar is t , i n these household chape ls.
Translating Echoes
Th i s w i l l be examined more fu l l y i n chapter four w i t h reference to the image o f St. F ranc is i n prayer and its p ro l i f i c appearance on Deru ta ma io l i ca. T h e perpetual presence o f the Fr ia rs i n the househo ld ensured the dominance o f this Order i n U m b r i a. A l t h o u g h they cou ld never equal the soc ia l rank o f aristocrats because o f their l o w l y b i r th, they cou ld emulate aristocrat ic pretensions, such as the pursui t o f H u m a n i s m.
Th i s interest i n C lass i ca l l iterature and culture had an impact on the imagery and inscr ipt ions chosen for Deru ta ma io l i ca , as the artisans attempted to satisfy the desire among the midd le c lass to show cul tural sophist icat ion. U p to the early 2 0 t h century, the Renaissance per iod tended to be seen through the lens o f po l i t i ca l h is tory, the ru l ing eli tes and the careers o f important statesmen, pr inces, 1 7 R.
Goldthwaite, Wealth and the Demandfor Art in Italy: Johns Hopkins University Press, , pp. This was the result of the surviving written sources which recorded the lives of those figures whose achievements were considered to shape the history of the Renaissance. The study of Deruta maiolica is an important counterweight inasmuch as it is a testament to the values and aspirations of the often overlooked middle class. Although the Deruta artisans relied on the Italian aristocracy for patronage and protection, this group did not generally purchase Deruta maiolica. The discipline of Religious Studies is also important in terms of understanding the devotional interests of middle class women.
In the Renaissance, the division between secular and religious was not as distinct as it is today. Religion and devotional practices were an essential part of the lives of Renaissance women. The impact of religion, especially the cult of St. Francis of Assisi and the four female lay saints in Umbria, was immense.
The presence of these saintly figures on Deruta maiolica reveals that religious concerns, such as creating a spiritual marriage and fulfilling familial and devotional obligations as discussed above, were paramount in the lives of Renaissance women. As th well, the depictions of St. Francis and the four female lay saints reflect contemporary 16 century devotional and ritual patterns and preferences.
Examination of the writings of medieval theologians such as St. Bonaventura and Nicholas of Cusa allows us to place into context these saintly images found on Deruta maiolica. Even though the urban middle class laity was not concerned with more obscure theological issues such as Christology, they did express an interest in religious subjects, especially the effect that certain saints could have on their personal lives.
The main preoccupations among the laity were maintaining a Christian marriage and the saints' performance of miracles on their behalf. Both of these concerns are reflected in Deruta maiolica through the depiction 12 of the hagiographies of St. Francis and the four female lay saints. The work of Giovanni Casagrandi, 2 0 Chiara Frugoni 2 1 and Daniel Bornstein, 2 2 is especially insightful with respect to this subject. Next, the discipline of Material Culture and Museum Studies w i l l be important to this thesis in order to gain insight into the display and promotion of maiolica collections in museums and galleries throughout the world.
This w i l l include an investigation in chapter one of collections of maiolica throughout the 17 t h to 19 t h centuries and the intellectual, social and psychological motivations which led individuals like Cardinal Mazarin , statesman , Wi l l i am Morris , designer, writer and Walter Koerner , industrialist, collector to purchase and collect maiolica.
The research conducted by Susan Pearce, 2 3 who studied the collecting patterns of men and women, and Mark Goodwin , 2 4 who focuses on Henry Cole , director of the South Kensington Museum and the South Kensington Museum, one of the first maiolica collection on display to the general public, w i l l be of particular importance to this study. Finally, the discipline of Women Studies is essential.
Since this thesis examines the lives of Renaissance middle class women and their role in the domestic environment, the scholarship of a number of feminist scholars working in this area is extremely C. Spunti e Appunti," Collecteana Franciscana 62 , Francis a Saint in Progress," in Saints: Studies in Historiography, ed. Pearce, Collecting in Contemporary Practice London: Athlone Press, , pp.
Cynthia Lawrence, Susan Reverby, Dorothy Helly and Roberta Gilchrist examine gendered space, gendered archaeology and the collecting patterns of Renaissance women. They argue that the domestic environment was the center of Renaissance women's daily activities and that the decorative objects displayed in these environments both reflected and reinforced the requirements for women as wives and mothers as well as their interests and personal affinities.
Using their work as a model in chapter one of this study, I will demonstrate that the placement, imagery and function of Deruta maiolica provide great insight into the lives of middle class women in the Renaissance. Geographical Limits of this Study This study is limited to the pottery production of Deruta in the central Italian region of Umbria. Although other pottery centres such as Castel Durante, Gubbio, Faenza and Urbino also produced tin-glaze earthenware maiolica , the nature of the imagery on the ceramic pieces from these pottery studios was quite distinct.
These pottery centres generally produced ceramic plates in the istoriato It. Istoriato pottery was more expensive than Deruta pottery and was generally produced for the aristocracy. The themes which characterized istoriato pieces were rarely produced on Deruta maiolica prior to The reason for this absence at Deruta may be due to a 2 5 C.
Cornell University Press, Gilchrist, Gender and Material Culture: The Archaeology of Religious Women London: Renaissance middle class families generally were more concerned with issues of deportment, morality and religion as they related to wives and mothers, than with humanistic themes derived from Classical culture. However, a future study of istoriato Italian maiolica based on an interdisciplinary approach is certainly a desideratum.
This thesis is also limited to the discussion of "golden age" Deruta maiolica c. As will be discussed later, this period of maiolica was later esteemed as representing the zenith of Deruta ceramic production. However, reference will be made to Deruta ceramics made prior to , termed proto-maiolica pottery, and to the changes in imagery occurring on this ceramic following the golden age after The Database of Deruta maiolica pieces Given the number of plates unaccounted for in private collections throughout the world, it is impossible to enumerate with complete accuracy the number of surviving Deruta maiolica plates c.
Until a comprehensive and systematic study of maiolica collections, public and private, is completed, the actual number will not be determined with any certainty. However, an examination of plates featured in museum publications, as well as auction house catalogues, such as those from Sotheby's and Christie's, reveals that there are large quantities of Deruta maiolica in 2 8 See Appendix D: Proverbial Sayings and Inscriptions.
These inscriptions appealed to their husband's desire to display his intellectual sophistication and generally derived from the ancient Classics, the Bible and Petrarchan literature. So far pieces c. However, pieces of Deruta maiolica have been set apart for study in this thesis because they conform to the four distinct categories of images studied here: Francis receiving the Stigmata, St. As my databases will show, maiolica collections are frequently sold by these houses.
Rarely, however, are entire auctions devoted to Italian maiolica, rather they are sold along with other decorative arts such as porcelain, Delft pottery as well as antique furniture. There are a few additional sources used in this database such as the accession records o f unpublished collections, e.
Moreover, a few pieces have been found in connoisseur journals on maiolica collections in English 17 manors, such as the Bowes Museum,3 0 Polesden Lacey 3 1 and the Wernher Collection. Auction Catalogues Museum collections are not the only source from which the research database has been compiled. Ninety-nine examples of Deruta maiolica have been found in Sotheby's, Christie's, Bonham's and Finarte Milan auction catalogues.
These catalogues feature pieces sold at auction between to the present. The sale of the Deruta pieces has taken place in locations throughout North America and Europe: New York, London, Rome and Florence. Well preserved pieces of Deruta maiolica, in particular, are frequently sold by the auction houses of Sotheby's and Christie's. These auctions offer insight into the variety of Deruta maiolica collections owned privately throughout the world.
Auction catalogues by their very nature are of limited value for the researcher because they provide little information beyond a cursory description of the object. Each catalogue entry includes a photograph, the estimated date of production, a brief 3 0 E. Conran, The Bowes Museum London: Mallet, "Maiolica at Polesden Lacy: After the 's the acquisition of maiolica pieces by major museums became much more infrequent. I have chosen the date of as a beginning point for the study of auction catalogues because the UBC Museum of Anthropology's collection Vancouver, B.
C , Canada starts at this time. Hovarth donated his large collection of auction catalogues to the Museum of Anthropology library. Hovarth's collections encompass the years to Since the auction houses of Christie's, Sotheby's, Finearte Milan and Bonham's have placed their auction catalogues on the internet. This has expedited research greatly. I continue to collect data on the Deruta maiolica pieces sold at recent auction. The catalogue also gives the name of a previous owner of the object; however, the history of the object before the most recent owner is rarely given.
Such limited information serves one purpose: Typically, an object's condition determines its monetary value; accordingly, a decorative piece with unusual imagery, but in a fragile state, is rarely sold at auction or displayed in a catalogue. The imagery is mentioned chiefly to appeal to the aesthetic interests of the buyer. Catalogue entries fail to include important information such as the literary origins of a unique inscription or the prototypes for the imagery on these plates. Hence, these auction catalogues are of marginal value with respect to their social, historical and religious significance because an object's marketability is placed above its scholarly questions.
However, auction catalogues are excellent for contributing to a database emphasizing iconographic trends. Exhibit Catalogues Museum collection exhibit catalogues are more valuable for the researcher because, in addition to the date, description and condition of the object, the museum curator often provides further insights into the imagery and iconography of objects, such as social significance and the history of the piece before reaching the museum. Often the curator provides background information on the collectors who donated their pieces to the museum. The curator's insight into the collector's personal interests and values informs the researcher about the criterion the collectors employed when they selected individual pieces.
The following chapter will show that collectors often had specific 19 aesthetic, intellectual and social criteria in mind when they acquired objects. These criteria have affected the varieties of pottery found in museum collections and may even have determined which categories of Deruta maiolica survived and which were destroyed or discarded. However, there are limitations to the academic value of museum catalogues as well. Curators, like the collector, can impose their own personal values and tastes when selecting the contents of a catalogue.
Decisions made in the process of writing and production of the catalogue affect the usefulness of the catalogue as a research source. The size of the photographs, their colour quality, and even the decision to include certain pieces in the catalogue at all, are examples of some of the decisions a curator must make when producing a publication. It is not possible to know if the catalogue represents the entire maiolica collection possessed by the museum or if the pieces featured were selected for their excellent quality, condition and visual interest.
Through additional correspondence with the individual curators I have been able to resolve many of these questions. Comprehensiveness of the Database The database created for this thesis includes the collections of museums and 62 auction catalogues. In Antiche maioliche a Deruta , the first formal publication issued by ceramic 20 scholars at Deruta, the ceramic scholar Grazietta Guaitini, compiled a list of Deruta maiolica collections throughout Europe and North America. However, the database I have compiled has gone beyond Guaitini's list in size, scope and detail.
For example, I have noted errors in Guaitini's list; specifically, collections listed as possessing Deruta maiolica that do not. As well, I have indicated when collections have been transferred from one museum to another, and also when a museum's name has changed. As well, Guaitini's list of art institutions does not include many museums in the United Kingdom, such as collections in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.
These collections, which existed prior to Guaitini's publication, may not have been included because they were deemed too small in quantity to be considered significant. Although Guaitini's compilation provides a sizable list of important collections of Deruta maiolica, he did not provide any precise information on the number of pieces in each collection or the imagery on individual pieces.
Furthermore, he did not collect these pieces in a database to be utilized by other scholars of Deruta maiolica. The database I have compiled is the foundation of my research.
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It is an important source from which to assess and study trends, particularly, among three categories of Deruta maiolica; bella donna plates, plates depicting female lay saints and objects with images of St. However, an exhaustive accounting of Deruta pieces in existence is not the primary purpose of this study. Because of the constraints of distance, time and funding, it was impossible to visit all museums listed in Guaitini's appendix and study their collections first hand. As well, not all collections had pieces which fit within the focus of this study.
For example, many collections housed pieces which extended beyond the 50 year time frame c. However, I was able to study the pieces in many unpublished collections by obtaining valuable information directly from museum curators through e-mail and written correspondence. It was through their generous assistance, as noted in Appendix A, Table I, that I was able to create an extensive and well-rounded database. The database, while not entirely comprehensive, is large and demonstrates emerging trends with reference to the comportment, moral exemplars and devotional practices of middle class Umbrian women.
It also reveals that not all images were produced in equal number. For example, the number of bella donna plates far outweighs the numbers of devotional plates female lay saints and images of St. Although one might expect maiolica pieces with saintly imagery to be more prominent, this is not the case. The popularity of bella donna plates, as evidenced by their high survival rate, demonstrates the importance of marriage and the mentoring of wives during this period. However, it can also be suggested that of the four categories of maiolica images in our survey bella donna plates, lay saints, St.
Francis receiving the Stigmata and St. Francis 22 in prayer bella donna plates most appealed to the intellectual and aesthetic tastes of male collectors from to the present. It would be wrong to conclude that the fewer numbers of saintly images on Deruta maiolica, when compared to bella donna plates, means that they were any less significant to Umbrian families. Rather, the small number of saintly figures on Deruta maiolica may have been due to the competitive market with respect to devotional objects.
Whereas bella donna imagery was only represented by the genre of maiolica, devotional imagery was found in a wide variety of media, namely paintings, statues and inexpensive prints which were readily obtained in bookstores. Thus, although the saintly images produced on the pottery were popular figures, and possibly more popular than bella donna plates, the media depicting these saints was also more diverse.
Since this thesis studies four categories of images on Deruta maiolica - bella donna, female lay saints, and the figures of St. Francis receiving the Stigmata and in prayer - relating to the social, moral and religious interests of Umbrian families and women between , there are many categories of Deruta maiolica images which are not included in this study. For example, with the exception of images of St. Francis, the images of other male saints found on Deruta maiolica St.
John the Baptist, St. Thomas are excluded from this study because at this point in my research a specific typology has not emerged. Other male images, such as the 23 Turkish horse riders, will not be studied because they do not appear to have any direct relevance to the lives of Umbrian women.
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Conversely, deschi da parto birth plates represent an important part of women's lives but are omitted from this study. First, they are not discussed here because they have been studied at length by Jacqueline Musacchio. Second, while deschi da parto provide important insight into women's lives, there are very few Deruta pieces of this variety featuring the categories of images i.
While Musacchio's work emphasizes childbirth with relation to Italian Renaissance women, this thesis emphasizes other aspects of their lives, namely models of comportment and devotional rituals. As well, the erotic plates studied by Catherine Hess will not be included in this study. Fundamental Findings of this Thesis Using these interdisciplinary methods I discovered four major aspects of these plates, which represent my main contribution to the study of Italian maiolica, and of Deruta maiolica in particular.
First, these objects were stored in women's bedrooms, where the women were not only responsible for their care and upkeep, but also where they contemplated the objects and their significance to their lives. Lanteri states that it was the role of the wife to 3 6 J. Yale University Press, Eroticism in Ceramics, ed.
Mathieu New Brunswick, N. Rutgers University Press, , pp. Figures 1 and 2 demonstrate how many decorative objects, such as candlesticks, books, tapestries, glass and maiolica, were housed in the bedroom. Second, each plate had a unique significance to the life of the woman who possessed it. Some plates, like the bella donna plates, [Figures 17,20, 22,25,29, 30; pp. A wife was expected to bring honour to her new family through her chastity, pristine comportment and moderate behaviour.
Third, the four female lay saints depicted on Deruta pottery demonstrated that personal spiritual development was important to women [Figures 32, 34, 35; pp. These four saints fit a specific typology, or theme. A study of the four female lay saints through their hagiographical sources reveals that the theme of marriage and familial obligation preoccupied the Umbrian women who possessed an affinity for this saintly typology. This study examines the anxiety women had regarding marriage, the pressures placed upon them to marry, and how Umbrian women, who unlike the lay saints could not escape marriage, bridged the competing demands for a spiritual life with those of marriage.
Fourth, this dissertation demonstrates that the Franciscan Order gained great influence and popularity among Umbrian women by attempting to settle the needs and demands in Umbrian women's lives. In particular, the Franciscans created a set of devotional exercises for women to perform in the privacy of their own homes, specifically in their bedrooms.
These exercises, depicted on Deruta maiolica pieces 25 [Figures 45, 46; pp. In turn, the Franciscan Order gained considerable influence because middle class women in Italy supported the Order. Finally, I would like to emphasize that there are limitations to this study. The Deruta pieces used in the database have survived entirely because collectors chose to save them.
It is difficult to know if these pieces are truly representative of what was created by the Deruta potters years ago. What has survived has been dependant entirely on the personal taste of collectors. American and British collectors preferred to collect bella donna plates, whereas French collectors appreciated Saints' plates. As a result, we cannot know with accuracy whether the database is numerically representative of all the bella donna plates, saints' plates, and, in general, all the pottery produced by Deruta artisans.
Since it is ultimately the taste of maiolica collectors from the 17th century to the present which has determined the variety and scope of the Deruta maiolica pieces in existence today, we must begin this thesis with the history of Deruta maiolica collecting. Axiology, Placement and the Collection of Renaissance Deruta Maiolica Deruta maiolica ceramics at the time of their production c. Featuring the images of exemplary women and saintly figures, these objects were placed in women's bedrooms and devotional areas such as household chapels and were contemplated daily.
They were also important to husbands who used these pieces as a means to educate their wives. These ceramic pieces remained in the possession of middle class Italian families, after "the Golden Age of Maiolica" , but were assigned less value. These pieces were no longer objects housed in the bedroom to be contemplated, but rather they were used as kitchen utensils for mundane family functions such as cooking and serving.
However, following , international collectors began to view these maiolica pieces with new interest after a century of hibernation in private family collections. As a result, maiolica pieces became a valuable commodity in the decorative art market. Although Deruta maiolica was not valued to the same degree as "Old Master" paintings and monumental sculpture, beginning in the 18th century it became a decorative genre which attracted the eye of collectors for a number of reasons.
Placed in public receiving rooms Deruta maiolica was considered a visible manifestation of the courtly love tradition and represented high quality craftsmanship which was also considered a technological wonder. In the 19th century private collectors with their "Italiophile" interests, began to collect Italian maiolica for its perceived association with Old Masters, such as Raphael, as well as with the intent of placing it in their studies to create a 27 Renaissance ambience and recreate an ideal past. Collectors and dealers made frequent buying trips to Italy in search of items from the Renaissance to transform their studies and libraries into sanctuaries of culture and beauty amidst the drab industrial environment which marked 19th and early 20 th century England and Europe.
In the eyes of Victorian reformers maiolica, among other beautiful objects, should be collected and displayed in public museums to offer a model for social change. On the other hand, it was also collected by American industrialists as an accessory to Old Masters and monumental art, which created a personal legacy for the owners. As a result of both of these trends maiolica finally came to be housed in public museums where it resides today. Five hundred years of maiolica acquisition and collecting is a broad scope for one historical study and indeed one chapter.
Yet, it is essential to examine this lengthy period of history to determine why Deruta maiolica was collected; by both male and female, as well as middle class and aristocratic collectors. Although this dissertation focuses on a fifty year period of ceramic production at Deruta , an examination of the social, religious, aesthetic and intellectual forces influencing collectors from to the present is essential.
These patterns have shaped the nature of maiolica collections today. It is therefore important to demarcate the characteristics which define that value. As argued below two characteristics which reflect an object's value are placement and 1 Ultimately, the maiolica which survives is a reflection of particular collecting patterns. The maiolica pieces which did not interest collectors over the last years did not survive.
Thus, it is important to identify these patterns, since they had an immense impact upon what we can know about Deruta maiolica. This is most suggested by the existence of known bella donna plates, whereas only 16 lay saints and 56 St. As the following discussion will demonstrate bella donna plates appealed to later collectors. Whether in a middle class Umbrian woman's bedroom, a 17th century or 18th century gentlemen's receiving hall, a 19th century male dilettante's study or even in contemporary public museum displays, maiolica pottery has consistently enjoyed a pride of place for varied reasons.
The placement of maiolica in these different spaces raises the issue of the perceived value of a given object within a society over a period of time. The gender of the person possessing the object is of equal importance to determining the valuation of the object. Gender has a direct influence on the placement of the object in a given environment. Therefore, in order to determine an object's value, we must consider both placement of the object and the gender of the owner.
Paul Veyne, following Max Weber, refers to such historical investigation as axiology. Nor does the researcher make value judgments on the aesthetic worth of an object. Rather an axiological historian focuses on one object or one historical phenomenon and assesses its perceived value over time.
The historian assumes that the value of an object is never static, but rather subject to changing environmental, social, religious, economic, and political conditions. Each new historical milieu adds a new dimension to the perception of the object and its estimated worth. Additionally, these changes in value can only be measured in comparison to earlier historical periods. In this thesis the perceived value of Deruta maiolica in the first half of the 16th century will be compared to that of the 17th through 21 t h centuries.
An axiological survey will demonstrate that Deruta maiolica was valued for different reasons at different periods in 2 P. Essay on Epistemology, trans. Wesleyan University Press, , p. Weber, Essais sur la Theorie de la Science, trans. Plon, , pp. The changing perceptions of the value of Deruta maiolica corresponds to the gender of the purchaser men or women , the buyer's social class aristocratic or middle class , the object's social, religious and cultural function utilitarian, devotional or aesthetic as well as its placement. The placement and the gender of the buyer are two key aspects in the measurement of value over time.
We cannot say that Umbrian Renaissance middle class families "collected" Deruta maiolica in the same sense that aristocrats collected maiolica from the 17 century on. Deruta maiolica was acquired for particular reasons relating to middle class women's lives. However, following the insights of Veyne, Weber and Greenblatt we may argue that the valuation of maiolica was expressed in a similar way by the nature of its placement and display within its surrounding environment. The value of Deruta maiolica in Renaissance middle class households is reflected by its placement in secure and private female quarters and private chapels in the household.
Correspondingly, Deruta maiolica valuation is seen in the 17 century, by its placement in the receiving rooms and studies of wealthy aristocratic males. Today, Deruta maiolica's value is expressed by its display in public museums. Placement and Value Following the Renaissance, the placement of Deruta maiolica changed radically, indicating that the ceramic pieces had been subject to an abrupt shift in perceived value.
Whereas Veyne and Weber discuss the impact of social attitudes on the perceived value of an object over time, Michel Foucault describes the variables of time and space and 3 C. Patrons, Collectors and Connoisseurs, ed. Lawrence University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press, , p. Foucault suggested that space can also indicate an object's function. The placement of the object whether in a private bedroom, public receiving room or centre for institutional activity determines the significance of the object to the observer. The more formal and prestigious the space, the higher the social significance accorded to the object.
For example, spaces set apart for their specialized or ritualistic functions, such as churches, museums, prayer spaces, contain objects of the highest value. Places used for generic tasks such as cleaning and cooking possess objects of the least value. On the other hand, the bedroom is a storehouse for objects of sentimental value. In Foucault's view, the placement of an object in private quarters indicated that it is an object of intimate and personal value.
This view is also expressed by Greenblatt, who added that along with placement, the manner of display contributes to the perception of the object and its value. Specifically, the manner and care with which an object is placed, such as, the quality, expense and stylistic execution of an object's mount and environment enhances the appearance, importance and value of an object.
Greenblatt, "Resonance and Wonder," in Exhibiting Cultures: Smithsonian Institute Press, , pp. This article argues that the presentation of an object not only reveals its perceived value, it also succeeds in enhancing or diminishing the value in the eyes of viewers. The history of collecting Deruta maiolica demonstrates that its fluctuating social and cultural value is conveyed through its placement and display i. The placement of a maiolica piece, whether in a woman's bedroom, a man's study or a public institution, such as a museum, each imparts unique and important information regarding the social and economic value of the object.
The value of a bella donna plate to an individual woman in the Renaissance was equal, if not greater, in value to that of a 19th century male aristocratic collector. This study 31 object used for private prayer and moral reflection in the intimacy of a woman's private devotional space but now an object featured in major public and cultural institutions. Deruta maiolica is stored and displayed within increasingly elaborate and sophisticated exhibitions and placed in galleries created specifically for the showing of this single ceramic genre.
Currently, maiolica collections are housed in museum galleries protected by electronic alarms and enclosed in velvet and glass. Such an environment attests that the perceived monetary value of Deruta maiolica has grown exponentially. The item Vino e pane, Ignazio Silone represents a specific, individual, material embodiment of a distinct intellectual or artistic creation found in Des Plaines Public Library. This item is available to borrow from 1 library branch.
Creator Silone, Ignazio, Extent xv, p. Note Originally published under title: Mondadori, Note Originally published under title: Pane e vino Bibliography note Includes bibliographical references p. Library Locations Map Details.