Numerous examples from medieval Spanish literature and folklore echoed the same themes e. The early 15th century witnessed a renewal of poetry under Italian influence. The collection showed not merely the decadence of Galician-Portuguese troubadours but also the stirrings of more-intellectual poetry incorporating symbol, allegory , and Classical allusions in the treatment of moral, philosophical, and political themes.
Francisco Imperial, a Genoese who settled in Sevilla and a leader among new poets, drew on Dante , attempting to transplant the Italian hendecasyllable syllable line to Spanish poetry. He is still acknowledged as a precursor of the Renaissance, though his sonnets and long poems, which reflect his Italian-influenced training, are often neglected in favour of his charming rustic songs of native inspiration.
Written with greater satiric force than other works that treated the dance of death theme, it introduced characters e. Although not intended for dramatic presentation, it formed the basis for later dramas. The early Spanish humanists included the first grammarians and lexicographers of any Romance tongue. The dominant character, the procuress Celestina, is depicted with unsurpassed realism and gives the work the title by which it is commonly known, La Celestina.
Surviving for centuries in the oral tradition, Spanish ballads romances link medieval heroic epic to modern poetry and drama. The earliest datable romances —from the midth century, although the romance form itself has been traced to the 11th century—treated frontier incidents or lyrical themes. The romance form octosyllabic, alternate lines having a single assonance throughout was quickly adopted by cultured poets and also became the medium of choice for popular narrative verse.
Garcilaso added intense personal notes and characteristic Renaissance themes to a masterful poetic technique derived from medieval and Classical poets. The popularity of the short native metres was reinforced by traditional ballad collections romanceros and by the evolving drama.
Models for epic poetry were the works of Italian poets Ludovico Ariosto and Torquato Tasso , but the themes and heroes of Spanish epics celebrated overseas conquest or defense of the empire and the faith. Spanish drama originated in the church. Juan del Encina helped emancipate the drama from ecclesiastical ties by giving performances for noble patrons. His conception of drama evolved during his long stay in Italy, with native medievalism transforming into Renaissance experimentation.
His four prose comedies have been called clumsy, but his 10 pasos showed his dramatic merits. Major landmarks in historical writing emanated from the New World, transmuting vital experience into literature with unaccustomed vividness. These chivalric romances perpetuated certain medieval ideals, but they also represented pure escapism, eventually provoking such literary reactions as the pastoral novel and the picaresque novel.
The former, imported from Italy, oozed nostalgia for an Arcadian golden age; its shepherds were courtiers and poets who, like the knights-errant of chivalric romance, turned their backs on reality. Another reaction appeared in the picaresque novel , a genre initiated with the anonymous Lazarillo de Tormes Passing from master to master, he depicted life from underneath.
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Miguel de Cervantes , the preeminent figure in Spanish literature, produced in Don Quixote part 1, ; part 2, the prototype of the modern novel. Where Don Quixote saw and attacked an advancing army, Sancho saw only a herd of sheep; what Sancho perceived as windmills were menacing giants to the questing knight-errant.
She too published Italian-inspired short stories, in the collections Novelas amorosas y ejemplares ; Eng. The Enchantments of Love: The writings of St. John of the Cross achieved preeminence through poems of exalted style expressing the experience of mystic union. The last was symbolized in the theme that Lope considered best of all: What this great Spanish playwright did possess was a remarkable sense of stagecraft and the ability to make the most intricate plot gripping.
Lope, who claimed authorship of more than 1, comedias , towered over his contemporaries. Lope ransacked the literary past for heroic themes, chosen to illustrate aspects of the national character or of social solidarity. The cloak-and-sword play, which dominated drama after Lope, was pure entertainment, exploiting disguise, falling in and out of love, and false alarms about honour. In it affairs of the lady and her gallant are often parodied through the actions of the servants.
The cloak-and-sword play delighted by the dexterity of its intricate plotting, its sparkling dialogue, and the entangled relationships depicted between the sexes. Although their names were suppressed and their works left largely unperformed for centuries, several women dramatists of the Siglo de Oro left extant plays. She also penned short dramatic panegyrics, romances , and other books. In poetry and prose the early 17th century in Spain was marked by the rise and spread of two interrelated stylistic movements, often considered typical of the Baroque. Authors shared an elitist desire to communicate only with the initiated, so that writings in both styles present considerable interpretive difficulties.
Poets writing in this style created hermetic vocabulary and used stilted syntax and word order, with expression garbed and disguised in Classical myth , allusion , and complicated metaphor , all of which rendered their work sometimes incomprehensible. The other stylistic movement, conceptismo , played on ideas as culteranismo did on language.
Aiming at the semblance of profundity, conceptista style was concise, aphoristic, and epigrammatic and thus belonged primarily to prose, especially satire. Concerned with stripping appearances from reality, it had as its best outlet the essay.
The Scavenger and The Swindler. His best comedies provide subtle critiques of urban mores, combining laughter with tragic foreboding La dama duende [; The Phantom Lady ]. His tragedies probe the human predicament, exploring personal and collective guilt Las tres justicias en una [ c. His best-known plays, appropriately classified as high drama, include El alcalde de Zalamea c.
These liturgical plays range in their artistry from the immediate metaphorical appeal of El gran teatro del mundo c. Culteranismo and conceptismo , although symptoms rather than causes of decline, contributed to stifling imaginative literature, and, by the close of the 17th century, all production characterizing the Siglo de Oro had essentially ceased.
In Charles II, the last monarch of the Habsburg dynasty , died without an heir, thereby provoking the War of the Spanish Succession —14 , a European conflict over control of Spain. Men of letters began again to study abroad, discovering how far Spain had diverged from the intellectual course of western Europe. New inquiries into the national heritage led scholars to unearth forgotten medieval literature.
Another major encyclopaedic talent, Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos , produced streams of reports, essays, memoirs, and studies on agriculture, the economy, political organization, law, industry, natural science, and literature, as well as ways to improve them, in addition to writing Neoclassical drama and poetry. Torres Villarroel experimented with all literary genres, and his collected works, published —99, are fertile sources for studying 18th-century character, aesthetics , and literary style.
Several women writers emerged during the Enlightenment and were active from onward in the male-dominated Spanish theatre. They wrote Neoclassic drama: While some women wrote for small private audiences convents and literary salons , others wrote for the public stage: Early 19th-century Spanish literature suffered as a result of the Napoleonic Wars and their economic repercussions.
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Spain experienced soaring inflation, and manpower across the peninsula was at low ebb as a result of emigration and military service. These problems were further aggravated by the loss of its American colonies. Some, however, recognize Cadalso and several lesser cultivators of Gothic fiction as 18th-century Spanish antecedents. Debates that prepared the way for Romanticism flourished from onward: Romanticism in Spain was, in many respects, a return to its earlier classics, a continuation of the rediscovery initiated by 18th-century scholars.
Important formal traits of Spanish Romantic drama—mingling genres, rejecting the unities, diversifying metrics—had characterized Lope de Vega and his contemporaries, whose themes reappeared in Romantic garb. Spanish Romanticism, typically understood as having two branches, had no single leader. Prolific , facile , and declamatory, Zorrilla produced huge numbers of plays, lyric and narrative verse collections, and enormously popular rewrites of Siglo de Oro plays and legends; he was treated as a national hero.
One major Romantic theme concerned liberty and individual freedom. Rimas influenced more 20th-century Spanish poets than any other 19th-century work. A number of notable women writers emerged under Romanticism. Her poems sounded many feminist notes, although she in later life became conservative. She also wrote 16 full-length original plays, 4 of which were major successes.
While poetry and theatre claimed the major honours, Spanish Romanticism also produced many novels—but none that rivaled those of Scottish contemporary Sir Walter Scott. Costumbrismo began before Romanticism, contributing to both Romanticism and the later realism movement through realistic prose. Such writings, realistically observing everyday life and regional elements, bridged the transition to realism. Early revival novels are of interest more for their powers of observation and description a continuation of costumbrismo than for their imaginative or narrative quality.
He was a prolific writer, his works ranging from poetry and newspaper articles to critical essays and memoirs. Included among these many novels is his masterpiece, Fortunata y Jacinta —87; Fortunata and Jacinta , a paradigm of Spanish realism. Fortunata, his mistress and the mother of his son, and Jacinta, his wife. The novel has been seen as an allegory of the sterility of the upper classes, but its complexity transcends facile summary. His later works represent naturalism or reflect turn-of-the-century spiritualism.
He also wrote more than 20 successful and often controversial plays. Realistic drama in Spain produced few masterpieces but established a bourgeois comedy of manners further developed in the 20th century. In poetry, realistic trends produced little of note. He used a realistic approach to treat contemporary moral, religious, and political conflicts in his works, although his work also shows Romantic and medieval themes.
The novel acquired new seriousness, and critical, psychological, and philosophical essays gained unprecedented importance. A provocative, somewhat unsystematic thinker, Unamuno aimed at sowing spiritual disquiet.
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An artistic critic and sensitive miniaturist, he excelled in precision and ekphrasis description of a visual work of art. In his later works he experimented with Impressionism and Surrealism. The three stages of his literary evolution exhibit radical aesthetic change, beginning with exquisite , sometimes decadent , erotic Modernista tales, as in his four Sonatas —05; Eng. The Pleasant Memoirs of the Marquis de Bradomin: Each represents a season of the year and of human life corresponding to the youth, plenitude, maturity, and old age of the narrator, a decadent Don Juan; intertextual allusions, nostalgia for an idealized past, aristocratic posing, melancholy , underlying parody, and humour abound.
Modernismo rejected 19th-century bourgeois materialism and instead sought specifically aesthetic values.
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Seeking Platonic absolutes in his final years, he produced measured, exact poetry that increasingly exulted in mystical discoveries of transcendence within the immanence of self and physical reality. A prolific playwright noted for his craftsmanship and wit, he profoundly altered Spanish theatrical practice and fare. Excelling in the comedy of manners with sparkling dialogue and satiric touches, Benavente never alienated his devoted upper-class public.
He won the Nobel Prize for Literature in His dramas inveighed against hypocrisy and corrupt values with mordant irony. Luces de Bohemia ; Bohemian Lights illustrates his theory and practice of esperpento , an aesthetic formula he also used in his fiction to depict reality through a deliberately exaggerated mimesis of its grotesqueness. She continued writing his plays even after he abandoned her for another woman.
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Brothers Manuel and Antonio Machado collaborated on several lyric plays during the s and early s. The term novecentistas applies to a generation of writers that fall between the Generation of and the vanguardist Generation of The novecentistas —sometimes also called the Generation of —were more classical and less revolutionary than their predecessors. They sought to renew intellectual and aesthetic standards while reaffirming Classical values. Belarmino y Apolonio ; Belarmino and Apolonio examines the age-old debate between faith and reason, utilizing symbolic characters and multiple narrative viewpoints, while Tigre Juan ; Tiger Juan dissects traditional Spanish concepts of honour and matrimony.
Images and metaphors—frequently illogical, hermetic, or irrational—became central to poetic creation. Most of these poets experimented with free verse or exotic forms drawn from the Japanese, Arabic, and Afro-Caribbean literary traditions. By the end of the Spanish Civil War, in , many writers of the Generation of were dead or in exile. Lorca , a consummate artist, musician, dramatist, and poet, captured the stark emotions and powerful effects that characterize traditional song and ballad forms.
In Romancero gitano ; The Gypsy Ballads , he blended popular styles with sophisticated mythic and symbolic elements evoking mysterious, ambivalent visions of nature. Symbols and metaphors turn hermetic in Poeta en Nueva York ; Poet in New York , a Surrealist reflection of urban inhumanity and disorientation written during his visit to the United States in — Salinas sought pure poetry through clearly focused poems and a heightened sensitivity to language.
Truth of Two and Other Poems , profoundly personal love experiences inspire subtle observations on the solidity of external reality and the fleeting world of subjective perception. A Selection , first published in and repeatedly enlarged in successive editions, constitutes a disciplined hymn to the joys of everyday reality. Aleixandre , influenced by Surrealism, dabbled in the subconscious and created his own personal myths.
If you want to force a particular order, use the character to divide the number and the descriptor. So, " 0 prequel " sorts by 0 under the label "prequel. Series was designed to cover groups of books generally understood as such see Wikipedia: Like many concepts in the book world, "series" is a somewhat fluid and contested notion. A good rule of thumb is that series have a conventional name and are intentional creations , on the part of the author or publisher.
For now, avoid forcing the issue with mere "lists" of works possessing an arbitrary shared characteristic, such as relating to a particular place. Avoid series that cross authors, unless the authors were or became aware of the series identification eg.
Also avoid publisher series, unless the publisher has a true monopoly over the "works" in question. So, the Dummies guides are a series of works. But the Loeb Classical Library is a series of editions, not of works. Home Groups Talk Zeitgeist. The 12 Days of LT scavenger hunt is going on. Can you solve the clues? I Agree This site uses cookies to deliver our services, improve performance, for analytics, and if not signed in for advertising.
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