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Get to Know Us. English Choose a language for shopping. Explore the Home Gift Guide. Amazon Music Stream millions of songs. As order and coherence were amongst Wolf's main concerns, he was highly critical of the conceptual obscurity that characterised classical studies up to his day. He strongly disapproved of the fact that the various subdisciplines of the study of antiquity were plagued by "fluctuating boundaries and an indeterminate scope".

Nothing illustrates with more clarity the shift in thinking about classical studies than Wolf's attempt to replace the concept of "fine sciences" by a new concept of "pure science". Wolf complemented the traditional, exemplary perspective on the ancient world with a historical perspective, which he even considered superior to the traditional view:. In Wolf's view, the primary aim of classical studies was no longer to appreciate classical texts for their exemplary qualities, but to gain "historical and philosophical knowledge, by which we can get to know the nations of the ancient world The transformation of classical philology initiated by Friedrich August Wolf posed a major challenge to the late 18th-century ideal of humane education Bildung.

Yet, Wolf, like most contemporary academic philologists, did not himself consider scientific philology and humane values to be mutually exclusive. On the contrary, Wolf explicitly motivated his transformation of classical studies in normative terms. It was because he considered classical antiquity a world of rare significance and beauty that he recommended it as an excellent object of scientific study.

In the introduction to Darstellung der Alterthumswissenschaft , Wolf celebrated antiquity as "the inner sanctum of the Wolf was amongst the first philologists to conceive of the classical world at large as a beautifully structured work of art. Seeing antiquity as an "organic unity" " organisches Ganze " and an "animated whole" " belebtes Ganze " , Wolf held that the "mediocrity" of many remains of the ancient world "still had a nobler stamp than modern mediocrity", as all remnants of the ancient world were infused by a sacred "spirit that unite[d] everything individual to a harmonious whole".


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This early 19th-century concept of classical antiquity as a beautifully structured unity is of essential importance to understand why the concept of rigorous science was integrated into the ideal of classical education. In Friedrich August Wolf's view, getting sight of the "organic unity" underlying the ancient Greek and Roman world would only be possible by subjecting this world to conscientious methodical research. Only a Wissenschaft science that would explore all aspects of antiquity in detail and conjunction would be able to fully expose its beautiful "inner coherence".

By transforming classical studies, Wolf aimed to create a science of antiquity that was as harmoniously organised as antiquity itself. Yet, Wolf left not the slightest doubt that the ultimate purpose of unravelling antiquity's inner coherence was to see its beauty and value. Scientific philology would ultimately generate an inspirational " Epoptie " "epopty" of "ancient humankind itself", an uplifting "vision of the sacred".

It was because it confronted people with an edifying "image of a more divine humanity" 60 that " Altertumswissenschaft " "science of antiquity" contributed more "perfectly" than any other science to "the harmonious development of the [human] mind". Wolf's transformation of the ideal of classical education testifies to the implementation of the novel, Humboldtian concept of " wissenschaftliche Bildung " "scientific education" in classical philology. It was this abstraction of the ideal of humane education from its traditional connection to concretely demonstrable and imitable values that created a new standard of reflection on the relation between Wissenschaft and Bildung science and education.

After Wolf's implementation of the concept of " wissenschaftliche Bildung " "scientific education" in classical philology, educational value was no longer the prerogative of the humane sciences, but could be claimed by each scientific discipline that aimed to unveil a part of the harmonious totality of human knowledge. Thus the path was cleared for many more sciences than ever before to gradually enter the canon of the educational sciences. From the s onwards, the educational value of the natural sciences began to be defended in a fashion that would have been unthinkable without the Wolfian model.

Karl von Raumer — , a well-known geologist, deduced the educational value of his discipline from the geologist's task to uncover the mathematical structure underlying geological formations by means of rigorous science. For this order, being of an unmistakable, magnificent beauty, pointed to a higher, non-material reality. Moritz Drobisch — , professor of mathematics and philosophy at the University of Leipzig , welcomed the recent exposure of the "mathematical fundament" of many sciences, as it put students in the position to "awe at the teleological coherence" and "recognise a superhuman, ordering wisdom whose purposes By directing the student's attention towards a spiritual reality behind the world of nature, astronomy could impossibly be denied "a powerful moral and religious influence".

Also mathematics was increasingly praised for its humane educational potential. According to the philosopher and theologian Moritz Erdmann Engel — , the "indisputable certainty" of mathematical knowledge would have a moralising influence on human beings.

In the early 19th century, scholars from widely different disciplines subscribed to the idea that the systematic structure underlying the various fields of human knowledge pointed to a higher, spiritual reality. Much like Wolf, who expected the positive results of scientific philology to yield a mystical vision of "ancient humankind itself", natural scientists believed that the exposure of nature's mathematical foundations would generate insight into the splendour and greatness of creation. Precisely the combination of "the marvellous and the scientifically exact" lay at the heart of the early 19th-century concept of scientific education.

The institutional impact of the above described ideal of scientific education can be measured by a number of reorganisations affecting the philosophical faculties of most 19th-century German universities.


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Firstly, as the ideal of " wissenschaftliche Bildung " "scientific education" was based on the concept of the totality and unity of human knowledge, the philosophical faculties began to develop curricula of encyclopaedic breadth that included both the humanities and the natural sciences.

In order to achieve this, they integrated numerous disciplines that had previously been accommodated elsewhere, for example botany, zoology, mineralogy and chemistry, which traditionally had the status of ancillary disciplines at the medical faculty.

Formats and Editions of Isidors von Pelusium klassische Bildung [theranchhands.com]

Secondly, as the concept of " wissenschaftliche Bildung " "scientific education" was intrinsically bound up with an ideal of scientific research, the philosophical faculties considered it their specific task, not only to provide general education, but also to expand the existing body of human knowledge.

Here students were given the opportunity to acquire scientific education by actively partaking in advanced, inquiry-based learning under the guidance of a scientific specialist. Thirdly, well into the late 19th century, it was common for German scholars to justify scientific research by stressing its educational potential. Specialisation within a small subdiscipline was widely considered suitable to harmoniously educate the mind because the systematic structure underlying the various subfields of human knowledge reflected the overall structure of the whole. Thirdly, the influence of the new ideal of scientific education is testified by the fact that at most universities, the philosophical faculty lost its traditional status of subordination to the other faculties.

Studying at the philosophical faculty was no longer seen as a way of gathering preparatory knowledge required for entering the higher, professional faculties, but, on the contrary, as the pre-eminent formative stage of the development of a true scientist Wissenschaftler. Only when mathematical and natural-scientific faculties began to emancipate themselves in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the philosophical faculties gradually gave up their claim of being the pre-eminent faculties to provide students with scientific education. The 19th-century German ideal of " wissenschaftliche Bildung " "scientific education" was also a major influence outside of Germany.

Although a German "model" was not known as such, many European countries copied various aspects of the German university system that closely related to the German concept of scientific education. The first official regulation of studies, put into effect on April 26th , was prepared by Christian August Brandis — , a German professor of philosophy who worked as a consultant for the young Bavarian King Otto I — , who ascended the Greek throne in In accordance with the Prussian model, Brandis accommodated the natural sciences at the philosophical faculty, against earlier proposals to equip them with a faculty of their own.

Apart from thus making the philosophical faculty represent the "unity of science", he also successfully introduced the typically German institution of "outside lecturers" Privatdozenten: Petersburg — led to the establishment of a three-year curriculum of general scientific education that preceded higher, professional training.

At nearly all of them, numerous eminent German scholars were employed, whose academic status helped spread the German ideal of science and research. These German-inspired achievements were remarkably preserved during subsequent university reforms in and , despite the significant political changes brought by time. In the Low Countries , German influence was most noticeable in the last quarter of the 19th century. In , the Dutch parliament justified a decision to preserve theology's position at the state's universities — against proposals to remove it from them in view of the radical separation of church and state prescribed by the Constitution of — by appealing to the celebrated German principle of the unity of science, which was even called "sacred" in one of the parliamentary debates.

Moreover, the first article of the Law on Higher Education mentioned scientific research as one the university's central tasks, whereas before, universities were primarily seen as teaching institutions. Comparable developments took place in Belgium from the s onwards, with German universities serving as examples. In Romanic countries, the influence of German ideas on scientific education was considerably smaller.

Since the French Revolution , the French system of higher education was in many ways diametrically opposed to that of Germany. Secondly, in the French faculties of letters, as in that of most other Romanic countries, a traditional, humanistic approach remained dominant throughout the 19th century.

This approach centred not on the ideal of rigorous science, but on elegant, empathetic text explanation intended for a wide audience. The sharp separation between faculty education on the one hand and scientific research on the other proves that the typically German integration of teaching and research did hardly materialise in France.

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Despite its limited institutional influence, however, German science and the German university played a central role in French debates on higher education in the second half of the 19th century. Duruy for example encouraged young academics to study in Germany or to examine German educational institutions. Most of these academics agreed that German science was superior to French science and that German universities widely surpassed the French faculties. Of all European countries, England was probably most immune to German influences. Throughout the 19th century, the universities of Oxford and Cambridge were mostly attended by students from the upper middle class, gentry and nobility, who saw a classical education as part of their gentlemanly upbringing and who harboured little interest in the novel German ideal of rigorous science.

Moreover, in England, the concept of "science" never took on the comprehensive and pretentious meaning that the term " Wissenschaft " obtained in Germany. Furthermore, state-directed, centralised reforms such as took place in Germany could hardly be implemented in a country like England where universities and colleges were still autonomous corporations that were largely independent from ministerial bureaucracy.

Nonetheless, German specialised research and education enjoyed a positive reputation in England in the late 19th century. The foundation of technical colleges and the promotion of subsidised research was often legitimised with reference to German examples. The influence of a specific "model" of science or of scientific education, however, can hardly be observed. Despite the profound influence that the new ideal of " wissenschaftliche Bildung " "scientific education" exercised both in and outside of Germany, it would not withstand the test of time.

This pressure would be only increased by the final institutional subdivision of the philosophical faculty into independent smaller faculties from the late 19th century onwards. In the 20th century, of the three constitutive characteristics of the German ideal of scientific education — which have been discussed in the introduction — only the research ideal remained.

This was a highly ironical fact, as the concept of the unity and the educational value of science had initially played a key role in legitimising the accommodation of research at the university. The founders of the " Wissenschaftsideologie " "ideology of science" believed in the educational potential of scientific research because they considered it ideally suited to educate the human mind in conformity with the unity of knowledge.

In the course of the 19th century, however, the proliferation of scientific research created a degree of differentiation and specialisation that proved ever harder to reconcile with the educational ideal endorsed by the research ideal's early advocates. At the turn of the 20th century it had become clear that the German ideal of scientific education had created the very conditions of its own decline.

This paradoxical development is best explained by comparing the ideal of " wissenschaftliche Bildung " "scientific education" with the traditional, classical ideal of humane education. Prior to the 19th century, the humane value of education was usually searched for at a very concrete level. As the ideal of humane education was abstracted from this traditional connection to demonstrable exempla, this concreteness could no longer be maintained. The beautiful "organic unity" that Friedrich August Wolf aimed to get sight of by the scientific study of antiquity could not be concretely exposed, explained or imitated, but only be sensed.

Although Wolf considered this unified view the ultimate outcome of scientific philology, it could not itself be analysed in scientific terms. He was sharply aware of the tense relation between his concept of rigorous science and the spiritual insight that it was supposed to evoke. This same tension was felt in the natural sciences.

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For although it could well be assumed that the scientific study of geology, astronomy or mathematics would imbue students with reverence for the majestic beauty of the creative order, this beauty was fundamentally beyond grasp of the scientific apparatus that should effectuate its appreciation. Beauty or divine wisdom might well be believed to underlie the eternal laws of nature, but they could not possibly be explained or analysed in scientific terms. In the course of the 19th century, the idea of "organic unity" that was assumed to underlie human knowledge was abstracted to such an extent that its relationship with the practice of education in the end became almost completely obscure.

August Spilleke — , one of Germany's foremost advocates of education in the natural sciences, acknowledged the danger that by this type of education pupils would entirely lose sight of the spiritual world. As a result of this inherent problem, in the course of the 19th century the gap between the positive results of rigorous science and its humanistic motivation gradually deepened. Eventually, it would become so wide as to compel many scholars to give up on the humanistic ideal of education and to replace it by a novel ideal of "objective" science.

Within classical philology, this step would be taken by Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff — , who expressly aimed to altogether abandon the traditional, exemplary perspective on the ancient world and replace it by a concept of pure, self-contained Wissenschaft science. Not seeing the point of "sacrificing a decennium" of one's life to "studying the ancient models", Mach promoted an ideal of "objective" science: For our argument it is crucial to understand that the final abandonment of the classical ideal of humane education in the late 19th century and early 20th century — an abandonment that is observable throughout Europe — was the ultimate result of its early 19th-century transformation.

As we have seen, the novel concept of " wissenschaftliche Bildung " "scientific education" did initially not curtail, but broaden the ideal of humane education. As humane studies were separated from their traditional relation to concretely demonstrable exempla, more sciences than ever before could lay claim to humane values. Eventually, however, this separation turned out to thwart the very humanistic purpose that it was supposed to serve. The gap between the positive results of rigorous science and its humanistic objectives finally grew so wide as to compel many scientists to stop believing in their connection.

Contrary to its initial tendency, then, the concept of " wissenschaftliche Bildung " "scientific education" turned out not to invigorate, but to challenge the ideal of humane education. In our time, the tension between the concept of rigorous science on the one hand and the ideal of humane education on the other is still widely felt. In more than one way, the crisis in the modern humanities is heir to the conflict between science and education that originated in the 19th century. The legitimacy of the humanities Geisteswissenschaften is nowadays widely questioned because it is often insufficiently clear whether and how the humane values to which they lay claim materialise in practice.

One of the difficulties scholars face in explaining this is that their concept of science does not allow them to recognise humane values as anything more than a desirable side effect of scientific practice. As most modern scholars adhere to the post-Kantian view that there can be no true "science" of values, they are a priori unable to acknowledge the study and transmission of values as one of the humanities' core tasks. Yet as we have seen, the Kantian view of the mutual exclusivity of values and science has anything but intrinsic validity.

For many centuries before Kant, scholars did not only look upon values as a worthy object of scientific knowledge, but considered their cultivation and transmission the primary duty of the humane sciences. One way to positively inform the debate on the modern humanities might therefore be to reconnect the concept of " Bildung " education to its preth-century roots.

By re-establishing more direct relations between their humanistic objectives and the actual content of their work scholars might become more successful in parrying the critique that the modern humanities have lost sight of their true objectives. Dokumente des Neuhumanismus, 2nd ed. Barby, Johann Heinrich Christian: Bischoff, Christian Heinrich Ernst: Die Lebensfrage der Civilisation: Briefe zur Bildung des Geschmacks, Leipzig et al. Dyck, Johann Gottfried et al.

Johann Gottlieb Fichte ed. Werke, Berlin , vol. Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich: Das classische Alterthum in der Gegenwart eine geschichtliche Betrachtung, Leipzig Schriften zur Politik und zum Bildungswesen. Zweck einer gelehrten Schule, in: Gesammelte Schriften, Berlin , vol. System der theoretischen Philosophie, Wien , vol.

Briefe an Friedrich August Wolf, Berlin et al.