Moreover, it was not the metal part that was crucial with the heaviest blocks but rather the resistance of the block of stone to be gripped. Among the largest lewis holes are those made in blocks of travertine used for the construction of the facings, the orders and the archstones of the arch of the Colosseum, the holes reaching 22cm long by 6cm wide and 25cm deep.
As the use of lewises had many advantages, both in the speed of preparation and in the ease of handling, it became general throughout the empire. Only when the surface of a stone was intended to remain visible slabs and stylobates was it lifted using straps and cut into small pieces to make it lighter and more easily manoeuvrable and to avoid damaging the facing.
Some lewis holes, or what are presumed to be, are found on vertical walls; their position at the axis of the centre of gravity of the blocks means that it is difficult to attribute any other function to them. The use of special pincers, the jaws of which open up in the cavity when the stone is picked up, can therefore be suggested. Such devices, used up to the present day and called self-locking lewises or self-adjusting stone-dogs, most probably existed in the Roman period.
Materials 85 Grips modern. Roman building 86 Square holes for grips, theatre of Bullia Regia. With the use of grips or iron forceps ferrei forfices the preparatory work is even further reduced; all that is necessary is to make sure that the two hooked points of the self-adjusting pincers grip in small holes made symmetrically in the two vertical surfaces. When the grips are used on the joining surfaces the pediment monument at Glanum, for instance , the process remains invisible and so is superior to the use of the lewis as it is much quicker.
However, when the holes are cut into the front and back faces of a block, the numerous marks are visible on the facing Porta Maggiore, amphitheatre of El Djem, theatre at Bulla Regia. The use of grips, even though well Summary of the different lifting methods in Roman architecture: Materials 87 attested in the pictorial record relief of Terracina, relief of the via Cassia, relief of Pratica di Mare,67 the painting in the House of Siricus at Pompeii , was limited to the lifting of blocks of modest or average dimensions because of the limitation on how wide the jaws could open and the risk of them slipping figs , , , The blocks had already received some preparation when they were cut to establish their orientation, taking account also of transportation and lifting.
The front face generally received some special treatment, and could either be given a final dressing or could preserve a more or less marked rustication, whereas the lower surface, or bottom bed, and the upper surface, or top bed, had to be strictly flat in order to guarantee an optimum distribution of pressure.
Again to ensure the best resistance to compression the blocks were placed following the lie of the quarry bed, i.
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However, the falling position, with the beds vertical, can sometimes be seen in narrow blocks placed head-on and particularly with monolithic columns of marble, a metamorphic rock that is sufficiently resistant to withstand such a situation. The side or joining faces did not need any general treatment of their surface since they do not impart any pressure, and for this reason it was enough simply to treat the outer contact frame, the anathyrosis band,68 with fine chisels, whereas the centre of the face was rebated with a scabbling hammer or a punch.
Depending on the quality of the monument or the position of the stone, the anathyrosis frame could go round all four sides of the joining face, or could be limited to the visible edges only, particularly if the masonry fill was rough. Sometimes, however, with large blocks a partial rebating was carried out to limit the work of fine dressing on the top and bottom beds: Temple of Venus, Pompeii. Materials 89 Anathyrosis rebating on the top and facing sides of a slab. Amy, Le Temple de Bel, vol. The order in which the blocks were assembled sometimes necessitated, when the dressing and bedding took place a long way apart, the use of positioning marks, according to a sequence in a work book these marks recorded the specific form of each stone, as dictated by the general design of the monument.
The most common example is that of column drums, the diameter of which varies, decreasing with the height of the bedding position. As the number of drums is itself liable to vary from one column to another, identification has to be doubly accurate. The marks were either drawn in chalk and have disappeared or engraved on the top beds of the blocks so as to be visible, and in this way they differ from the marks made by quarrymen and masons found on the facing blocks of walls dating to the archaic period or the Republican era the Servian Wall in Rome,70 the walls of Bolsena71 or of Pompeii and later on the aqueduct of Carthage.
Lacking knowledge of the chronology used by the builders, there are two possible translations: Nymphaeum of the Letoon, Xanthus. Roman building 92 Painting from the House of Siricus showing a scene on a building site. Pompeii, VIII, 5, 26— The exact positioning of a block was done by hand when it was small, but more often with the aid of crowbars. This meant that small cavities—crowbar, or spike, holes—were necessary to provide the tool with a grip for the operation. These holes were cut in the top bed of stones already in place, at the time of manoeuvring, depending on the distance the blocks were to be moved.
If they were moved on rollers from the point where they were deposited by the lifting equipment, blocks could not be wedged closely together, since a certain amount of space was needed when pulling the rollers out. Sometimes several successive spike holes are found, indicating separate attempts carried out using several crowbars.
Note here, from left to right, the sealing clamp, three sockets for vertical dowels with channels for the overflow and two spike holes, thus enabling the block to be clamped to the joint of the upper block. Roman building 94 the positioning of which may be marked on the lower bedding course by a slight difference of treatment of the surface. This provides a useful clue for the reconstruction of a course that has disappeared fig This fitting together of blocks was also carried out sideways from scaffolding levels, with the aid of similar holes but generally set into handling Sideways wedging of the blocks for the facing Aqua Claudia.
Materials 95 Side spike hole, hollowed in a projection intended to be removed. Where the holes remain, it is on buildings still in course of construction the Temple of Venus in Pompeii , in facings that have not been given a final dressing Porta Maggiore in Rome, the theatre of Tusculum , or whose blocks have a strong rustication, the projection of which can accommodate such cavities74 the pillars of the Aqua Claudia in Rome figs , , The aesthetic disadvantage caused by the presence of crowbar holes on the facings disappears when they were cut into the top bed, as they were to aid longitudinal wedging.
In such a case two sockets for the spikes were prepared, one in the edge of the block already in place and the other in the Spike holes in the side of blocks in a pillar in the aqueduct of Aqua Claudia. Roman building 96 joining face of the block to be wedged. This can be observed on the parts of the entablature of the Forum in Pompeii where such an operation may have been attempted fig. The usual method of construction was the simple fitting together of dryjointed blocks, but the Romans also borrowed from the Greeks the custom of making the elements of a stoneblock construction solid by using wooden or metal clamps and dowels.
These were intended to prevent joints widening due to possible movements caused by variations in settlement in the foundations or by seismic shocks. In fact, when the building had proper foundations such precautions were com-pletely superfluous since the pressure was only transmitted through the walls vertically; at the most, clamping counteracted the effect of slipping caused by untrussed roof systems. The metal clamps and dowels were anyway robbed during the Middle Ages without the buildings, losing their stability. Whatever the case may be, the method was already used by the Egyptians who employed thick wooden tenons in the shape of double dovetails to prevent similar damage.
It can be found also in Pre-Columbian Andean architecture in the eighth century AD in the form of bronze clamps in a double T; proof, if it were needed, that similar technical problems find identical solutions in totally different times and places. The earliest shape adopted was that of a double dovetail, for it lent itself to the manufacture of tenons from hard wood—oak, cedar or olive75—and besides it was merely a continuation of a shape used for joints in timber-work and carpentry.
In the sixth century BC the Greeks, while still continuing to use wood, also used lead—in the form of tenons and still with the double dovetail—poured in advance into a mould and then inserted into the mortices and hammered in to fix them tightly. Double-dovetail mortices are found but they generally enclose an iron clamp with a pi shape, covered by lead solder filling the rest of the cavity fig.
Generally, the dovetail clamp disappeared from the architecture of the peninsula during the first century, even if certain great monuments used it in the Augustan period the Temple of Mars Ultor in Rome. The Greeks, with fewer monumental building programmes and their perfectionism in building, were able to devote more time to the execution of the jointing details, since the entire building work, due to the quality of the stone-cutting, necessarily followed a much slower rhythm than in the Roman world.
Materials 97 Four spike holes around the edge intended for the fine positioning of the shaft of a column. Materials 99 Pi clamp, the most widely used shape, at the Temple of Venus, Pompeii. Roman building Socket holes of three vertical dowels in a column base. In the vast majority of cases, pi clamps were therefore used for fastening in Roman stone block construction. Besides the speed of manufacture of the iron piece, the holes cut into the two juxtaposed blocks to hold it did not need to be cut as precisely as they would for double-T mortices.
Once the clamp was in place, the remaining space was filled by a solder of lead which could simply seal the two vertical projections or cover the whole thing figs , With the use of clamps, all the stones of a course were solidly bonded together. Sometimes a vertical bonding was added to the horizontal bonding—more common with the Greeks than with the Romans—consisting of metal dowels77 sealed into the top surface of the lower course and inserted into a cavity on the bedding surface of the upper course.
Dowelling was essentially used for holding column drums; the dowels were single for columns of small diameter and increased to two, three or four depending on the increase in contact surface. Since inserting lead into the upper cavity was problematic the Greeks had thought of various solutions using channels on the upper surface, as in the Temple of Apollo at Delphi , the simplest solution consisted of first sealing the dowel of the upper block by turning it over.
Then, once the lead and the dowel were in place, molten lead was poured into the lower cavity and the stone adjusted, the dowel settling in the metal that was still liquid. To stop the latter overflowing, a channel was often cut from the hole out to the facing figs , This two-stage operation was rather complicated and so instead the dowel was simply sealed with lead into the lower block and the upper block was put in place by inserting the dowel dryjointed into the mortice.
This ensured that when the metal solidified it did not form a projection which could impair the stability. Sometimes, lacking confidence in the stability of their constructions, the Romans took what may seem the excessive precaution of clamping the voussoirs of arches; thus those in the Cestian Bridge in Rome were fixed in pairs with four dowels. The drum on the right upper face visible as shown by the lewis hole supported that on the left. The sockets of the dowels are wide to allow for the lead sealing.
On the lower surface of the other drum the holes for inserting the dowels dry- jointed are narrower. Note the slight depression of the centre. The use of mortar as a bonding agent in stone-block construction was relatively limited; the quality of the dressing of the adjacent surfaces lent itself better, in preserving the fineness of the joints, to the use of clamps or to their absence. This can be seen in the so-called Temple of Fortuna Virilis, in fact dedicated to the god Portunus, in the Forum Boarium in Rome which was built with blocks of tufa pointed with an almost pure lime mortar, then rendered with stucco imitating blocks of marble which has almost completely disappeared today.
Other monuments that were left bare have been given the same mortared joints, such as the Tabularium,79 the Emilian Bridge, the Milvian Bridge and the pillars of the Aqua Marcia, all in Rome. The strips of mortar poured into vertical grooves in the joining surfaces of the blocks of aqueduct conduits, basins and fountains, were intended to ensure that these constructions for conveying water were watertight. They can be seen quite clearly on the ruined sections of the Aqua Marcia and between all the paving slabs at the bottom of the public fountains in Pompeii.
When monuments had ashlar facings with a core, the fill of opus caementicium consisted of a mass of rubble bonded with lime mortar which also bonded the stone blocks to the supporting masonry of the core. This is the method by which almost all funerary monuments were constructed, some- Wavy joint in a granite column from the Basilica Ulpia. Materials Vertical sealing clamps with double dovetails.
Synonyms and antonyms of abécédaire in the French dictionary of synonyms
Markets of Trajan, Rome. The search for technical perfection, as noted above, was held in high esteem by Roman builders, and this ambition can still inspire admiration for the many monuments with monolithic column shafts, sometimes of considerable height. When one of these shafts was accidentally broken in the course of its transportation or use, it was easier, rather than replace it, as the material often came a long distance, to dress the missing piece so as to reconstruct the finished column using blocks intended for repairs.
An accident such as this happened on at least three monuments in Rome that had granite columns: What can be seen with the help of binoculars for two columns of the Pantheon are sinuous joins of remarkable ingenuity, consisting of an undulating ring surrounding a central circular raised part. The complexity of the contact surfaces was such that, when this solution was resorted to, there was no need for dowels for vertical bonding.
Finally another method of clamping should be mentioned. Analogous to that used in the horizontal plane, but applied to the joints between two courses, it consists of clamps with double dovetails, attached to the facing surfaces of the travertine blocks in the Markets of Trajan. These blocks form part of the abutments of a vaulted gallery, and it may have been necessary to reinforce this part of the construction as it was built on quite steeply sloping ground fig.
The idea is justified by the astonishing mechanical qualities of this plastic and malleable material that, soaked in water, maintains the form given to it by the hand and in drying becomes a solid substance. Though wood, foliage and animal skins were the first constituents of the nascent architecture of temperate countries, clay was and remains the essential building material of the regions of the world where vegetation is scarce, and particularly on most of the shores of the Mediterranean.
It is interesting then to find wood and clay combined in a more developed architecture, forming timber-framed struc-tures that are particularly common when building stone is in short supply, when it is of mediocre quality or, conversely, when it is difficult to work. This combination of materials has such qualities and its cost is so much lower than building with stone that its use is known everywhere, even up to the present fig. This observation, originally accidental, was made by the potter, and it was many centuries before this mundane and waterproof material came to be used for building.
Clay was of course baked to form bricks, but since the earliest regions where this transformation had been carried out enjoyed a hot and dry climate—Mesopotamia— baked bricks were for a long time used only for watertight constructions, such as watertroughs or pipes, or for the more vulnerable parts of buildings, such as the frames of openings or the facings of large monuments.
On two widely separated sites are found the first Greek monuments to use baked bricks. One is the Hellenistic palace at Nippur in Mesopotamia,84 and the other is in the colony of Magna Graecia at Velia in Lucania, where stamped bricks were recovered in large numbers from buildings of the Hellenistic period85 fig. It is probably this use of baked bricks by Greeks in the south of the peninsula which led to the cities of Campania using the material a long time before Rome.
Materials Timber framing with clay infilling in the traditional architecture of the region of Bursa Turkey. Clay, used pure, soaks up a great deal of water and cracks in drying, especially if it is a certain kind of clay, referred to as fat, long or rich. Observation of this led to the introduction into the clay of a filler to counteract the effects of shrinking and cracking caused by the loss of water. Puddled clay and daub are in effect the same material. The initial preparation for making clay walls is also the same whether the material is used in bulk or in the form of unbaked bricks. The clay is placed in a water-filled pit, near a water source, where it is pugged by being trodden by foot with a tempering agent, sometimes vegetable — such as straw, dried grass, cereal chaff — and sometimes ash or mineral in the form of sand or gravel fig.
Meaning of "abécédaire" in the French dictionary
Moroccan Atlas, twentieth century. Roman building with the clay, after the precaution has been taken of insulating it from the ground, i. Construction proceeds in sections of limited length 2 to 3m and of a height usually not more than 1m, called shuttering from shutters—the boards of the framework or formwork. As the material is put in place it is trodden and tamped, and, more specifically, puddled87 with the aid of a tamper or rammer, a heavy wooden paddle designed for this work.
This compression has the dual purpose of compacting the material and ridding it of some of its moisture before it dries fig. In its first stage, the manufacture of unbaked bricks does not in any way differ from the use of the material in the way described above. The essential difference lies in the creation of rectangular blocks, which are easy to handle and are left to dry in the sun to obtain a solid building material that can be used without a framework, joined together by wet clay.
Buildings can in this way reach considerable dimensions and be constructed very quickly. The east was able to create enormous ziggurats and urban enclosures, a method taken up again by the Greeks in their last programmes, still visible at Eleusis and particularly in the fortifications of Gela in Sicily.
Bricks are moulded in a wooden frame without a base and divided into a variable number of boxes of equal size.
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The workman fills these and then empties them with one throw on to the drying area figs , Although manufacture can be carried out at any season, except times of great rainfall if the drying area is not roofed, Vitruvius recommends autumn or spring for the moulding work, periods when the sun is not too strong so the skin does not dry out too quickly and crack. In saying this, Vitruvius indicates that unbaked bricks were used in construction in the same way as stone and that the walls built in this way were given a covering which allowed a decorative facing to be added. This observation is all the more comprehensible in view of the fact that the author of the Ten Books, writing his treatise between 40 and 32BC, makes no mention of baked bricks in the construction of walls.
Vesuvius, where Roman construction using baked bricks had existed at least since the time of Sulla. Standard sizes were in use in order to simplify the work of the mason. Vitruvius, along with Pliny,90 lists three types of bricks: A Hearth or combustion chamber. B Door for feeding fuel and for ventilation. It is partially blocked up during the firing.
C Shelf or internal ledge pierced by heat holes or flues. D Bricks to be baked piled up in the charge chamber. E Loading door completely blocked up during the firing. G Bricks, stones and clay piled up around the side to keep the heat in. Materials Pottery kiln in the region of Deir- ez-Zor Syria ; access to the combustion chamber is on the right in the dip and the opening for loading is on the left. Kilns for baking bricks are identical to those used for pottery, except in size, because of the greater volume of material to be fired. The pottery kiln can be circular or oblong,91 and is situated partly underground, which conserves heat and makes loading and unloading the material easier.
The lower part is made up of the combustion chamber, supplied with fuel by means of an opening that can be partially walled up during the baking to control the ventilation, leaving the space necessary for adding fuel. When the surface area of this base-plate is large, it is supported on pillars; or else the heating chamber can consist of several galleries, each with their own heating vents.
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In small-sized kilns there is no loading door and a vault is constructed around the products to be fired, which is simply destroyed when firing is complete. The upper part of the charge chamber is always left open so as to provide a draught for the fire. The potter, bearing in mind factors of wind or rain, simply places a variable number of tiles over the bricks and never seals the kiln off completely.
For the same reason the bricks are piled up on the internal shelf with sufficient space between them so that the hot air is sucked towards the top hole and the firing is equal throughout the kiln. The firing time is extremely variable as it depends on the size of the kiln, atmospheric conditions and the fuel used; as a practical indication, a present-day brick kiln in the region of Kairouan Tunisia , with a charge chamber 3m in diameter and 4m high, heated with brushwood and dried grass in hot dry weather, has a firing time of about three hours.
The latter temperature is the minimum threshold below which clay does not solidify and returns to either a dry powdery state or a putty-like condition if water is added. The upper layer of bricks is usually rejected as it is often unsuitable for building work. Another method of firing, which does not require the construction of a kiln, is firing in a stack.
This consists of piling up unbaked bricks, with one or several combustion chambers at the bottom of the pile in which the fire is lit directly. The crescent shape with a small aperture is very typical of the first half of the second century. Note that the manufacturer is a slave: Gallicano et Vetere Cons ulibus.
Decorated with a bucranium. CIL XV, , a. The oldest marks, in the style of those from Velia, are rectangular. They then take the form of an open crescent which closes to become a circle. Rectangular stamps reappeared during the later Empire. However, it is not certain whether firing in a stack, still practised by the artisans of Greece and particularly in Turkey, was in use in antiquity fig. Potters marked their products, and so numerous tiles and bricks carry a stamp, such as that of Velia, which gives valuable information of either origin or date.
In the period of Trajan, stamps become more elaborate and at the end of the second century the information provided extends from the name of the land owner where the clay originated to the final monument, e. Castris praetori s Aug. The builders of southern Italy realized fairly early on the advantages of this material which could be shaped to order. They created the first examples of brick columns made up of sections of discs with the same radius as the shaft to be constructed.
Here there are bricks with an outline defining the fluting, which was then rendered with white stucco. This secondary use is also confirmed by a good deal of masonry on minor buildings where the edges of the tiles have survived. This reuse was to be standard at Pompeii, particularly after the earthquake of 62, when the city had at its disposal a mass of material resulting from collapsed roofs. Though he speaks only of walls made out of unbaked bricks, Vitruvius also recommends the reuse of tiles as a building material 11,8.
However, it is not clear whether he is discussing reusing tiles as bricks or broken fragments of tiling: Generally, the use of cements with a base of gypsum or lime was confined to the east for many centuries and it was not until the Hellenistic period that this technique was introduced, still somewhat intermittently, into Greek architecture. Thus at the Hellenistic site of Dura-Europos on the Euphrates blocks, instead of being joined by cramps, were stuck together with gypsum mortar.
The Greek theoretician Philo of Byzantium also recommended its use in fortifications. This also notably allowed the development and construction of vaults whose spans still hold the record. The chemical equation for the calcination of pure limestone can be expressed as follows: Materials The resulting product, an oxide of calcium, is called quicklime; a stone with a crumbly surface which can be hydrated to obtain a bonding agent. This hydration, or slaking, is achieved by immersion and brings about the decomposition of the blocks, which expand, give off a strong heat and form a putty which is the slaked lime.
It is this plastic material that is mixed with aggregates99 to obtain mortar. The chemical equation for this second transformation can be expressed as: The presence of other chemically reactive substances can modify the slaking process and vary the nature of the Lime-kiln situated right at the foot of the quarry supplying it at Itri, southern Latium.
Roman building Construction and loading of the kiln at Foca Campania ; the combustion chamber is built up with the largest blocks. The most significant of these is clay, but these distinctions will be outlined below, in defining the different qualities of lime. It is useful before coming to that to examine the processes used to achieve the correct calcination of limestone, i.
Materials Lime-kiln on the road to Epidaurus Peloponnese in the course of being loaded. By looking at the installations used by lime burners in different Mediterranean countries today Italy, Greece, Tunisia and Syria , where the methods of production have hardly changed since antiquity, it is possible to describe with reasonable certainty the same operation in the Roman period. Three processes can be distinguished: The lime kiln, as already mentioned, functions just like a pottery kiln. It is a circular construction resembling a truncated cone in section, varying greatly in size, with the kilns observed ranging from 2 to 7m in both diameter and height, the size generally being related to the length of the process.
Wherever possible, the kiln is built into a slope in order to take advantage of an efficient constant temperature and easy access to the lower part for the fire and to the upper part for loading and unloading figs , The internal walls of the cavity are lined with a facing of coursed fireproof stones bonded with clay or of any available stones protected by a coating of clay mixed with pottery sherds.
Access to the lower part of the kiln was through an opening at ground level large enough 1. In the centre, the lime burner made a circular area forming the base of the hearth. Around this he stacked the stones, leaving an almost oval space forming a dome, the combustion chamber, linked to the outside by a passage with an opening at the door, thus forming a kiln proper in the middle of limestone.
In certain contemporary installations, a supply of fresh air can be provided underneath the hearth as in forges , linked to the outside by a duct passing beneath the construction. Above the combustion chamber, built up with the largest blocks, the lime burner stacks up more stones, finishing with the smallest fragments, which require a lower firing temperature figs , At the top level of the construction two solutions Completion of the loading of the kiln in fig.
Materials Exterior cone, or lamia, of the kiln at Foca, during the burning. The air- vents, or eyes, open at ground level. The first consists of leaving a more or less horizontal area made up of the last layer of stones, which are then rejected when unloading the kiln as they are not burnt properly—this is possible when the summer climate is completely dry Peleponnese, Turkey, Tunisia.
This covering has two advantages: Thus the burning is more even than in kilns open at the top and it avoids the risk of part of the load being ruined by a storm, causing a premature slaking of the upper layers. In some kilns in Tunisia Kairouan, Nabeul limestone and bricks are fired simultaneously. The stones are stacked up on the internal shelf, with no direct contact with the flame, and covered with bricks, protecting the upper half of the combustion chamber.
The former, requiring more air, thus occupy the area with the highest temperature. However, even though this dual use seems logical, nothing in documentary sources or in the archaeological record provides evidence to show whether such a method was practised in antiquity. When the filling, or in effect the construction, of the kiln is complete, the lime burner lights the fire at the centre of the combustion chamber.
Access for feeding and ventilation is obtained by one or two openings. The fuel used has to provide an intense heat with abundant flame, and must therefore be fairly small, perfectly dry and must give off its inflammable gases quickly, hence the name long-flame burning.
Depending on the season and the region, pine cones, olive kernels, cherry stones, plum stones, almond shells, small bits of wood or even twigs, brushwood and dried grass can be used fig. The fuel is thrown in with a spade or a fork and sometimes even by hand: To make sure that the limited space in the combustion chamber does not become obstructed, particularly in kilns without an internal ledge, the fuel is pulled out with a fire-iron every three hours in the kilns of Campania before it has completely burnt.
This is the fuel that was burnt and still is in rural dwellings in the braziers found in the private houses in Pompeii, in the kitchen fires and also in the large braziers of the baths of the Samnite period. The burning continues without interruption for several days, the length of time being related to the size of the kiln, the quality of the fuel and sometimes to the weather conditions. Here, for example, are the times noted for three different workings: Thus the complete cycle takes three weeks, which is then interrupted to ensure the supply of limestone and fuel.
Gypsum is burnt in identical kilns but with a much shorter firing time. The temperature needed for the conversion of plaster stone, sulphate of hydrated lime, CaSo4 OH 2 which does not react with hydrochloric acid, this being the distinction between plaster and lime , into sulphate of anhydric lime, CaOSo3, is relatively low and generally 48 hours is sufficient time. The stones are then crushed or milled giving a powder which, mixed with water, forms a bonding agent that sets almost instantaneously.
If you are burning with one stokehole, make a pit inside large enough to hold the ashes, so that it will not be necessary to clear them out. Build the kiln well, and see that a ledge goes round the entire kiln chamber at the bottom. If you burn with two stokeholes, there will be no need for a pit; when it becomes necessary to clear out the ashes, clear through one stokehole while the fire is in the other. Take care not to neglect the fire, but rather keep it going constantly, and be careful not to neglect it at night or at any other time. Charge the kiln with good stone, as white and little mottled as possible.
When you build the kiln, let the opening run straight down, and when you have dug deep enough, make a bed for the kiln so as to give it the greatest possible depth and the least exposure to the wind. If you have a spot where you cannot set the kiln deep enough, build up the top with bricks or else with rough stone and clay and daub the top on the outside.
If, when you have lit the fire, flame comes out from anywhere except at the round opening at the top, daub it with clay. Ensure that the wind does not approach the stokehole, and be particularly on your guard against the south wind. Au Texas, toutes les femmes sont belles. Dussent les rues en ruisseler de sang… Ce que la presse en dit.. Mais elle porte en elle son histoire. Il ne laisse rien au hasard: Le jour de ses noces. Margaret Kelly a disparu en En 20 mois, il effectue missions de combat en heures de vol.
Ou Pierre Paulot, sergent-chef au 8e? Tous fils de France. On ne leur demandait pas de faire la guerre — ou seulement de ne faire rien que la guerre —, mais aussi de construire. Ils se sont battus. John Franklin ne laisse rien au hasard: Il est de Venise. En usant la semelle de ses souliers.
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