Agricultural products, chemicals, and fuels are also significant exports. However, its proportion of GDP is still low compared with the ratio in more-developed countries.
- Labour and taxation.
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- Old China Trade.
- The Old China Trade: Before 1842!
Public administration has long been a main component of the sector, as has wholesale and retail trade. Tourism has become a significant factor in employment and as a source of foreign exchange. Agriculture has remained the largest employer, though its proportion of the workforce has steadily declined; between and it dropped from three-fifths to two-fifths of the total. The manufacturing labour force has also shrunk at a slower rate, in part because of reforms implemented at many of the state-run enterprises.
Such reforms and other factors have increased unemployment and underemployment in both urban and rural areas. Some two-fifths of all women over age 15 are employed. Chinese trade unions are organized on a broad industrial basis. Membership is open to those who rely on wages for the whole or a large part of their income—a qualification that excludes most agricultural workers. The lowest unit is the enterprise union committee.
Individual trade unions also operate at the provincial level, and there are trade union councils that coordinate all union activities within a particular area and operate at county, municipal, and provincial levels. At the top of the movement is the All-China Federation of Trade Unions, which discharges its functions through a number of regional federations. In theory the appropriate trade union organizations have been consulted on the level of wages as well as on wage differentials, but in practice their role in these and similar matters has been insignificant. They have not engaged in collective bargaining—not at all surprising, since their principal duties have included assisting the party and promoting production.
In fulfilling these tasks, they have had a role in enforcing labour discipline. From the point of view of the membership, the most important activities have concerned the social and welfare services. More recently, however, reforms of the social security system have involved moving the responsibility for pensions and other welfare to the provinces. Some government revenues also came from taxes, of which the most important was the general industrial and commercial tax. The trend, however, has been for remitted profits of the state enterprises to be replaced with taxes on those profits. Initially, this tax system was adjusted so as to allow for differences in the capitalization and pricing situations of various firms, but more-uniform tax schedules were introduced in the early s.
In addition, personal income and value-added taxes were implemented at that time. Railroads, some still employing steam locomotives, provide the major means for freight haulage, but their capacity cannot meet demand for the shipment of coal and other goods. Thus, just after the primary concern was to repair existing lines of communication, to give priority to military transport needs, and to strengthen political control. During most of the s, new lines were built, while at the same time old lines were improved. During the Great Leap Forward much of the improvement of regional transportation became the responsibility of the general population, and many small railways were constructed.
After , emphasis was placed on developing transportation in rural, mountainous, and, especially, forested areas in order to help promote agricultural production; simultaneously the development of international communications was energetically pursued, and the scope of ocean transport was broadened considerably.
Theodore Lyman
This situation has been improved considerably, as railways and highways have been built in the remote border areas of the northwest and southwest. All parts of China, except certain remote areas of Tibet , are accessible by rail, road, water, or air. Railway construction began in China in All trunk railways in China are under the administration of the Ministry of Railways.
The central government operates a major rail network in the Northeast built on a base constructed by the Russians and Japanese during the decades before and an additional large system inside that is, to the south or east of the Great Wall. The framework for the railways inside the wall consists of several north-south and east-west lines. Apart from those operated by the central government, there is also a network of small, state-owned local railways that link mines, factories, farms, and forested areas. The construction of these smaller railways is encouraged by the central government, and technical assistance is provided by the state railway system when it is thought that the smaller railways can stimulate regional economic development.
Coal has long been the principal railway cargo. The rather uneven distribution of coalfields in China makes it necessary to transport coal over long distances, especially between the North and South. The increase in the production of petroleum and natural gas has made necessary the construction of both pipelines and additional railways. Since the late s there has been a change in railway-construction policy.
The Boatload of Ginseng That Launched the China Trade
Prior to that time, most attention was paid to the needs of the eastern half of China, where most of the coal network is found; but since then, more emphasis has been given to extending the rail system into the western provinces and improving the original railway system, including such measures as building bridges, laying double tracks, and using continuous welded rail. In addition, certain important rail links have been electrified.
Since hundreds of thousands of workers have been mobilized to construct major lines in the northwest and southwest. In the s new lines were extended into previously unopened parts of the country. In the s new regions in the northwest were linked to the national market and opened up for development. The best example was the line built from Lanzhou in Gansu province westward into the oil fields of the Qaidam Basin.
These projects, which were coordinated on a national level, contrast to the pattern prevailing before World War II , when foreign-financed railroads were built in different places without any attempt to coordinate or standardize the transport and communications system. Even greater effort has been made since to speed up new railway construction and improve the existing network. A major new line runs southward from Beijing to Kowloon Hong Kong via Fuyang and Nanchang and eases strain on the other north-south trunk lines.
The China Trade Begins
In addition, upgrades to track and equipment have facilitated high-speed passenger rail service between Beijing and Shanghai , Guangzhou , and Harbin. The first modern highway in China was built in in Hunan province. The highways of China may be divided into three categories: The most striking achievement in highway construction has been the road system built on the cold and high Qinghai-Tibetan plateau. Workers, after overcoming various physical obstacles, within a few years built three of the highest and longest highways in the world, thus markedly changing the transport pattern in the western border regions of China and strengthening the national defense system.
Of the three highways, one runs westward across Sichuan into Tibet; another extends southwestward from Qinghai to Tibet; and the third runs southward from Xinjiang to Tibet. Much has been written about the magnificent Federal country estate, the gardens and the oldest greenhouse in America. Perhaps Theodore Lyman was too busy pruning his apricot trees to bother with getting his name in the paper or having his portrait painted. A merchant ship captain, A.
Old China Trade - Wikipedia
He was born in York, Maine, in , the son of a minister. As a young man he went to work as a clerk in a Kennebunk store owned by Waldo Emerson. He went into business with his boss and married his daughter, Sarah, in He was said to have planted elm trees in front of the store on the day he heard about the Battles of Concord and Lexington. Sarah had four children and died at 21 in Theodore Lyman went to Boston to seek a bigger fortune in , just as the American Revolution had ended and the China Trade began. He married Lydia Williams of Salem, Mass. Boston had suffered during the American Revolution; the end of the war brought on tremendous prosperity.
Americans were now free to trade with China and the East Indies. Boston merchants took advantage of that freedom, shipping specie, furs, ginseng and opium to China, and bringing back tea, silk, nankeen, porcelain and cassia bark. Their fantastic wealth inspired a building boom that stretched to country estates in the Boston suburbs.
Lecture - Arnholds: China Trader 歐商安利 - Ms. Vaudine England
Lyman bought gold bullion from the Spanish and sold it to the Chinese at great profit. He sent his ships to the Pacific Northwest to buy furs, then to China to sell them for another enormous profit. Lyman forbade his captains to mount cannon on their ship, though the seas swarmed with pirates.
William Sturgis ignored him and secretly brought cannons aboard the Atahualpa.
Pirates attacked his ship toward the end of a voyage, and he fought them off. When Lyman found out, he charged Sturgis the cost of freight for carrying the cannons.
- The China Trader Who Built the Lyman Estate - New England Historical Society.
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In Boston, Lyman gave quietly to charity. Shortly after he died in , he was praised for sending a daily supply of milk to 30 poor widows for two years, for three winters sending blankets to the Seaman's Aid Society and funding the Children's Friend Society. The town was home to the Boston Manufacturing Company, which ran a spinning and weaving factory that employed But it was still the country, and there a rich China trader could escape the unhealthy, disease-ridden city. McIntire designed a beautiful, symmetrical building in the Palladian style with an elegant ballroom.
He also designed a summer house for the Lyman Estate.