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Close mobile search navigation Article navigation. Article PDF first page preview. Opinions on the authenticity of the text has varied throughout the centuries, and in any event it was re-discovered too late to gain anything like the same status as the Spring and Autumn. The earliest known systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece , a development which would be an important influence on the writing of history elsewhere around the Mediterranean region.
Greek historians greatly contributed to the development of historical methodology. The earliest known critical historical works were The Histories , composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus — BCE who became known as the "father of history". Although Herodotus' overall emphasis lay on the actions and characters of men, he also attributed an important role to divinity in the determination of historical events. The generation following Herodotus witnessed a spate of local histories of the individual city-states poleis , written by the first of the local historians who employed the written archives of city and sanctuary.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus characterized these historians as the forerunners of Thucydides, [12] and these local histories continued to be written into Late Antiquity , as long as the city-states survived. Two early figures stand out: Hippias of Elis , who produced the lists of winners in the Olympic Games that provided the basic chronological framework as long as the pagan classical tradition lasted, and Hellanicus of Lesbos , who compiled more than two dozen histories from civic records, all of them now lost.
Thucydides largely eliminated divine causality in his account of the war between Athens and Sparta, establishing a rationalistic element which set a precedent for subsequent Western historical writings. He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, while his successor Xenophon c. The Chaldean priest Berossus fl.
Reports exist of other near-eastern histories, such as that of the Phoenician historian Sanchuniathon ; but he is considered semi-legendary and writings attributed to him are fragmentary, known only through the later historians Philo of Byblos and Eusebius , who asserted that he wrote before even the Trojan war. The Romans adopted the Greek tradition, writing at first in Greek, but eventually chronicling their history in a freshly non-Greek language. It marked the beginning of Latin historical writings. His speculation about what would have happened if Alexander the Great had marched against Rome represents the first known instance of alternate history.
Biography, although popular throughout antiquity, was introduced as a branch of history by the works of Plutarch c. Christian historiography began early, perhaps as early as Luke-Acts , which is the primary source for the Apostolic Age , though its historical reliability is disputed. In the first Christian centuries , the New Testament canon was developed. The central role of the Bible in Christianity is reflected in the preference of Christian historians for written sources, compared to the classical historians' preference for oral sources and is also reflected in the inclusion of politically unimportant people.
Christian historians also focused on development of religion and society. This can be seen in the extensive inclusion of written sources in the Ecclesiastical History written by Eusebius of Caesarea around and in the subjects it covers. As God's plan encompassed everyone, Christian histories in this period had a universal approach. For example, Christian writers often included summaries of important historical events prior to the period covered by the work.
Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the Middle Ages. They wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, that of the Church and that of their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers. In the Early Middle Ages historical writing often took the form of annals or chronicles recording events year by year, but this style tended to hamper the analysis of events and causes.
Some writers in the period did construct a more narrative form of history. These included Gregory of Tours and more successfully Bede , who wrote both secular and ecclesiastical history and who is known for writing the Ecclesiastical History of the English People. During the Renaissance , history was written about states or nations. The study of history changed during the Enlightenment and Romanticism.
Voltaire described the history of certain ages that he considered important, rather than describing events in chronological order. History became an independent discipline. It was not called philosophia historiae anymore, but merely history historia. Muslim historical writings first began to develop in the 7th century, with the reconstruction of the Prophet Muhammad 's life in the centuries following his death. With numerous conflicting narratives regarding Muhammad and his companions from various sources, it was necessary to verify which sources were more reliable.
In order to evaluate these sources, various methodologies were developed, such as the " science of biography ", " science of hadith " and " Isnad " chain of transmission. These methodologies were later applied to other historical figures in the Islamic civilization. Famous historians in this tradition include Urwah d.
A common language
The earliest works of history produced in Japan were the Rikkokushi , a corpus of six national histories covering the history of Japan from its mythological beginnings until the 9th century. The first of these works were the Nihon Shoki , compiled by Prince Toneri in The tradition of Korean historiography was established with the Samguk Sagi , a history of Korea from its allegedly earliest times. It was completed in and relied not only on earlier Chinese histories for source material, but also on the Hwarang Segi written by the Silla historian Kim Daemun in the 8th century.
The latter work is now lost. In the Song dynasty official Sima Guang completed the Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government , which laid out the entire history of China from the beginning of the Warring States period BCE to the end of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period Five Dynasties period]] CE in chronological annals form, rather than in the traditional annals-biography form. This work is considered much more accessible than the "Official Histories" for the Six dynasties , Tang dynasty , and Five Dynasties , and in practice superseded those works in the mind of the general reader.
The great Song Neo-Confucian Zhu Xi found the Mirror to be overly long for the average reader, as well as to too morally nihilist, and therefore prepared a didactic summary of it called the Digest of the Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government , posthumously published in It reduced the original's chapters to just 59, and for the rest of imperial Chinese history would be the first history book most people ever read. During the Age of Enlightenment , the modern development of historiography through the application of scrupulous methods began.
Among the many Italians who contributed to this were Leonardo Bruni c. French philosophe Voltaire — had an enormous influence on the development of historiography during the Age of Enlightenment through his demonstration of fresh new ways to look at the past. Guillaume de Syon argues:. He broke from the tradition of narrating diplomatic and military events, and emphasized customs, social history and achievements in the arts and sciences. He was the first scholar to make a serious attempt to write the history of the world, eliminating theological frameworks, and emphasizing economics, culture and political history.
Although he repeatedly warned against political bias on the part of the historian, he did not miss many opportunities to expose the intolerance and frauds of the church over the ages. Voltaire advised scholars that anything contradicting the normal course of nature was not to be believed. Although he found evil in the historical record, he fervently believed reason and educating the illiterate masses would lead to progress.
He helped free historiography from antiquarianism, Eurocentrism , religious intolerance and a concentration on great men, diplomacy, and warfare. At the same time, philosopher David Hume was having a similar effect on the study of history in Great Britain. Hume adopted a similar scope to Voltaire in his history; as well as the history of Kings, Parliaments, and armies, he examined the history of culture, including literature and science, as well.
He also argued that the quest for liberty was the highest standard for judging the past, and concluded that after considerable fluctuation, England at the time of his writing had achieved "the most entire system of liberty, that was ever known amongst mankind.
Because of its relative objectivity and heavy use of primary sources , its methodology became a model for later historians. This has led to Gibbon being called the first "modern historian". Biographer Leslie Stephen wrote that thereafter, "His fame was as rapid as it has been lasting. Gibbon's work has been praised for its style, its piquant epigrams and its effective irony. Winston Churchill memorably noted, "I set out upon Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire [and] was immediately dominated both by the story and the style I rode triumphantly through it from end to end and enjoyed it all.
In accuracy, thoroughness, lucidity, and comprehensive grasp of a vast subject, the 'History' is unsurpassable. It is the one English history which may be regarded as definitive Whatever its shortcomings the book is artistically imposing as well as historically unimpeachable as a vast panorama of a great period. The tumultuous events surrounding the French Revolution inspired much of the historiography and analysis of the early 19th century.
Thomas Carlyle published his three-volume The French Revolution: A History , in The first volume was accidentally burned by John Stuart Mill 's maid. Carlyle rewrote it from scratch. He emphasised the role of forces of the spirit in history and thought that chaotic events demanded what he called 'heroes' to take control over the competing forces erupting within society. He considered the dynamic forces of history as being the hopes and aspirations of people that took the form of ideas, and were often ossified into ideologies. Carlyle's The French Revolution was written in a highly unorthodox style, far removed from the neutral and detached tone of the tradition of Gibbon.
Carlyle presented the history as dramatic events unfolding in the present as though he and the reader were participants on the streets of Paris at the famous events. Carlyle's invented style was epic poetry combined with philosophical treatise. It is rarely read or cited in the last century. In his main work Histoire de France , French historian Jules Michelet — coined the term Renaissance meaning "rebirth" in French , as a period in Europe's cultural history that represented a break from the Middle Ages, creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place in the world.
His inquiry into manuscript and printed authorities was most laborious, but his lively imagination, and his strong religious and political prejudices, made him regard all things from a singularly personal point of view. Michelet was one of the first historians to shift the emphasis of history to the common people, rather than the leaders and institutions of the country. He had a decisive impact on scholars. Gayana Jurkevich argues that led by Michelet:. Hippolyte Taine — , although unable to secure an academic position, was the chief theoretical influence of French naturalism , a major proponent of sociological positivism , and one of the first practitioners of historicist criticism.
He pioneered the idea of "the milieu" as an active historical force which amalgamated geographical, psychological, and social factors. Historical writing for him was a search for general laws. One of the major progenitors of the history of culture and art , was the Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt [44] Siegfried Giedion described Burckhardt's achievement in the following terms: His most famous work was The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy , published in ; it was the most influential interpretation of the Italian Renaissance in the nineteenth century and is still widely read.
According to John Lukacs , he was the first master of cultural history, which seeks to describe the spirit and the forms of expression of a particular age, a particular people, or a particular place. His innovative approach to historical research stressed the importance of art and its inestimable value as a primary source for the study of history. He was one of the first historians to rise above the narrow nineteenth-century notion that "history is past politics and politics current history.
By the midth century, scholars were beginning to analyse the history of institutional change, particularly the development of constitutional government.
Historiography - Wikipedia
William Stubbs 's Constitutional History of England 3 vols. The work traced the development of the English constitution from the Teutonic invasions of Britain until , and marked a distinct step in the advance of English historical learning. He believed that, though work on ancient history is a useful preparation for the study of modern history, either may advantageously be studied apart. He was a good palaeographer , and excelled in textual criticism, in examination of authorship, and other such matters, while his vast erudition and retentive memory made him second to none in interpretation and exposition.
Leopold von Ranke — at Berlin was a pivotal influence in this regard, and was the founder of modern source-based history. Specifically, he implemented the seminar teaching method in his classroom, and focused on archival research and analysis of historical documents. Beginning with his first book in , the History of the Latin and Teutonic Peoples from to , Ranke used an unusually wide variety of sources for a historian of the age, including "memoirs, diaries, personal and formal missives, government documents, diplomatic dispatches and first-hand accounts of eye-witnesses".
Over a career that spanned much of the century, Ranke set the standards for much of later historical writing, introducing such ideas as reliance on primary sources , an emphasis on narrative history and especially international politics aussenpolitik. His credo was to write history the way it was. He insisted on primary sources with proven authenticity. Ranke also rejected the 'teleological approach' to history, which traditionally viewed each period as inferior to the period which follows.
In Ranke's view, the historian had to understand a period on its own terms, and seek to find only the general ideas which animated every period of history. In and at the behest of the Prussian government, Ranke founded and edited the first historical journal in the world, called Historisch-Politische Zeitschrift. Another important German thinker was Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel , whose theory of historical progress ran counter to Ranke's approach. In Hegel's own words, his philosophical theory of "World history World history is the record of the spirit's efforts to attain knowledge of what it is in itself.
The Orientals do not know that the spirit or man as such are free in themselves. And because they do not know that, they are not themselves free. They only know that One is free The consciousness of freedom first awoke among the Greeks , and they were accordingly free; but, like the Romans, they only knew that Some , and not all men as such, are free The Germanic nations , with the rise of Christianity , were the first to realize that All men are by nature free, and that freedom of spirit is his very essence. Karl Marx introduced the concept of historical materialism into the study of world historical development.
In his conception, the economic conditions and dominant modes of production determined the structure of society at that point. In his view five successive stages in the development of material conditions would occur in Western Europe. The first stage was primitive communism where property was shared and there was no concept of "leadership".
This progressed to a slave society where the idea of class emerged and the State developed. Feudalism was characterized by an aristocracy working in partnership with a theocracy and the emergence of the Nation-state. Capitalism appeared after the bourgeois revolution when the capitalists or their merchant predecessors overthrew the feudal system and established a market economy , with private property and Parliamentary democracy.
Marx then predicted the eventual proletarian revolution that would result in the attainment of socialism , followed by Communism , where property would be communally owned. Previous historians had focused on cyclical events of the rise and decline of rulers and nations. Process of nationalization of history , as part of national revivals in the 19th century, resulted with separation of "one's own" history from common universal history by such way of perceiving, understanding and treating the past that constructed history as history of a nation.
His writings are famous for their ringing prose and for their confident, sometimes dogmatic, emphasis on a progressive model of British history, according to which the country threw off superstition, autocracy and confusion to create a balanced constitution and a forward-looking culture combined with freedom of belief and expression. This model of human progress has been called the Whig interpretation of history.
His legacy continues to be controversial; Gertrude Himmelfarb wrote that "most professional historians have long since given up reading Macaulay, as they have given up writing the kind of history he wrote and thinking about history as he did. The term Whig history , coined by Herbert Butterfield in his short book The Whig Interpretation of History in , means the approach to historiography which presents the past as an inevitable progression towards ever greater liberty and enlightenment, culminating in modern forms of liberal democracy and constitutional monarchy.
In general, Whig historians emphasized the rise of constitutional government , personal freedoms and scientific progress. The term has been also applied widely in historical disciplines outside of British history the history of science , for example to criticize any teleological or goal-directed , hero-based, and transhistorical narrative.
Paul Rapin de Thoyras 's history of England, published in , became "the classic Whig history" for the first half of the 18th century,. Whig historians emphasized the achievements of the Glorious Revolution of It proved an immediate success and replaced Hume's history to become the new orthodoxy. I shall relate how the new settlement was This consensus was steadily undermined during the post-World War I re-evaluation of European history, and Butterfield's critique exemplified this trend.
Intellectuals no longer believed the world was automatically getting better and better. Subsequent generations of academic historians have similarly rejected Whig history because of its presentist and teleological assumption that history is driving toward some sort of goal. Hart says "a Whig interpretation requires human heroes and villains in the story. Popular history continued to be written by self-educated amateurs, but scholarly history increasingly became the province of PhD's trained in research seminars at a university.
The training emphasized working with primary sources in archives. Seminars taught graduate students how to review the historiography of the topics, so that they could understand the conceptual frameworks currently in use, and the criticisms regarding their strengths and weaknesses. The emergence of area studies of other regions also developed historiographical practices. The French Annales school radically changed the focus of historical research in France during the 20th century by stressing long-term social history, rather than political or diplomatic themes.
Grocers and waiters were Greek, yoghurt-sellers Albanian, clothes-sellers Jewish, tram-conductors Turkish, shoeshine-boys gypsies. Levantine cities were not romantic. They were trading cities, integrated into the economic systems of Europe and the Ottoman Empire.
Many were boom cities, which experienced rapid rises in population. From 5, in , the population rose to around , in Alexandria became a capitalist El Dorado, attracting a gold rush of Europeans and Syrians in the nineteenth century. The population rose from 5, in to , in and , in It became the port linking the economies of Egypt and Europe, with the largest stock exchange outside Europe and North America.
Beirut in had been described as a republic of merchants, living according to its own law. Its rise was due not only to local merchants but also, like that of Smyrna and Alexandria, to the arrival of foreign merchants and consuls. Its population rose from 6, in to around , in Salonica was also a trading city. Therefore until most shops in the city closed on the Sabbath and other Jewish holidays.
Salonica also became a boom town after Entrepreneurs from the Allatini, de Botton and Modiano families — often with links with the Mediterranean port of Livorno - helped bring Salonica, in a few years, out of the middle ages into the nineteenth century. Brick, soap and beer factories were opened. He offered help and medical care to all, whatever their religion. The city walls were demolished in and new boulevards created; French or Austrian style villas, such as the Villa Kapandji, appeared by the shores of the Aegean.
Railway links to Vienna in and Istanbul in opened up the hinterland. In the Banque de Salonique was founded with French and Austrian money. European fashions began to replace traditional dress. Another characteristic of Levantine cities was their sense of distance from the hinterland. In an age when sea transport was more important than today, and usually quicker and safer than rail or road, their role as ports facilitated their emergence as commercial and cultural centres.
Regular boat services made it easier to travel to other ports than to the hinterland. The corniche, where the boats docked, was the principal meeting-place in Levantine ports. The mountains of Macedonia were ravaged by comitacis, chetniks and cetes — brigands who used nationalism Greek, Albanian, Macedonian, Bulgarian or Turkish as an excuse for pillage and murder: Like the American University and Universite Saint Joseph in Beirut, they gave pupils the intellectual weapons, including language skills, with which to fight the cultural imperialism they represented.
All these characteristics were also present in Salonica. Some of the best schools in Istanbul today are continuations of schools founded in Salonica which moved, with staff, pupils and charitable foundation, in The famous Istanbul newspaper Cumhuriyet is successor of the Salonica newspaper Rumeli.
More than other Levantine cities, Salonica became a city of revolutions. Fanatically anti-Greek, it terrorised villages, most of which would have preferred to remain neutral.
On 29 April in Salonica the office of the Ottoman Bank and the surrounding cafes, as well as a French boat in the harbour, were blown up by Bulgarians, led by a teacher called Delchev, hoping to shake Macedonia out of its lethargy and force European intervention. In reprisal Bulgarians — recognisable by their dress - were killed in the street, until the governor Fehmi Pasha came to restore order in person, despite a bomb thrown at his carriage.
Another organisation of revolutionaries opposed to the Sultan, called the Committee of Union and Progress, was established in Salonica in Its nucleus was two young officers, Enver and Cemal, and Talaat bey, a telegraph employee. The army was infiltrated; even the Inspector-General Huseyin Hilmi himself was sympathetic. Like many others from Macedonia, the CUP had the ultra-nationalism of the frontier. Niyazi was of Albanian origin. Dr Nazim, born in Salonica, had studied in Paris.
The presence of foreign consuls in Salonica favoured revolutions. The CUP communicated with political exiles in Paris, and smuggled in subversive men and books, using Greek consuls and foreign post offices as well as their own networks. As more soldiers joined, or refused to suppress the coup, the movement turned into a constitutional revolution. On 24 July the Sultan capitulated and announced that elections to the Ottoman parliament would be held in the autumn.
Three times he called for cheers for the sultan; each time he was greeted by silence. On the main square, Enver Bey, the handsome young leader of the revolution, proclaimed: Long live the fatherland! In the following days, the city appeared to be politically united. Bristling with cartridges, pistols, and daggers, brigands laid down their arms or rather those too old to be useful and proclaimed their love of Liberty, Fraternity and Justice, from the balconies of the Olympos Palace Hotel and the Cercle de Salonique.
As in Constantinople imams, priests and rabbis embraced each other. The number of murders in Macedonia fell from in to in Until the ruling revolutionary party the Committee of Union and Progress held its congresses and published its newspaper Yeni felsefe new philosophy in Salonica.
The Young Turk revolution was an international event. Few Muslims considered it might soon be lost to the empire. In Constantinople many supported the Sultan. Salonica, however, remained true to revolution. To win popular support they had to promise to protect the Sultan. He was sent, again by train, to exile in Salonica, where he lived under house arrest in the Villa Allatini. He was replaced by a younger, more liberal brother, who reigned as Mehmed V. Salonica also shared the vulnerability of other Levantine cities.
A riot or a change of regime could change it overnight. After the entry of the Greek army and the king of the Hellenes on 29 October , Salonica was the first major city to be de-levantinised, before Smyrna or Alexandria. The Mausoleum of Galerius, which had first been transformed from a Roman temple into a church, then after into a mosque, in , like many other mosques, became a church again.
Shop and street signs henceforth had to be in Greek. People talking French in the streets were sometimes assaulted for doing so — already in Constantinople since Greek diplomats had been trying to persuade local Greeks to leave French schools, stop speaking French and hellenise their shop signs. After the Bulgarian school was attacked, and fighting broke out between Greek and Bulgarian soldiers on 1 June , Bulgarians fled the city.
Many left for France. Identity was not immutable. Many Salonicans preferred, when possible, to abandon their old identity, emigrate and become American or French. Perhaps as many as , Muslim refugees arrived in the Aydin vilayet alone in British and Austrian proposals for Salonica and the surrounding area to become an autonomous, neutral city or province, like Tangier or Mount Lebanon, protected by international guarantees and an internationally officered gendarmerie as Macedonia had possessed since were supported mainly by Jews.
Few others, however, put their city before their nationality. Once the commercial dynamo of Turkey in Europe, Salonica sank to being the second city of Greece, cut off from its former hinterland by the newly imposed frontiers of Albania, Serbia and Bulgaria. The creation of nation states weakened its trade, its hybridity, its multilingualism, and the power of the consuls.
Again benefiting from its geographical distance from the capital, however, Salonica again played a role as revolutionary capital in Levantine ports, being accessible to foreign navies, were easy to occupy, as Beirut in and Alexandria in had already discovered. In conclusion Salonica between and shows the political as well as the cultural and commercial independence of cities. Geography, demography, trade and diplomacy can empower them to play an independent role, often against the orders of their state and its capital.
Through the flight or transfer of its Muslims, and above all the destruction of its Jews by Germans in the Second World War, the history of Salonica also shows, that as one Salonican who emigrated to America, Leon Sciacky, wrote, civilisation was but a thin crust, a layer so tenuous that one dared not trust it.
Mais histoire, aussi, de massacres et de contre-massacres…. Son nom a des origines mixtes. En , Izmir comptait environ deux mille habitants. Chameaux et mules constituaient les principaux moyens de transport: Entre et , un bateau sur quatre quittant Marseille se dirigeait vers Izmir. Il y avait aussi la peur. Memoirs from Beyond the Tomb combines the autobiography of a great Romantic with the history of a great revolution.
The result is a masterpiece. Chateaubriand himself considered that noble birth gave him a passion for liberty. Chateaubriand contributed to the popularity of English Romantic literature in France, wrote on the Stuarts and helped translate Milton. He soon became one of the most famous writers in Europe, with a string of best-selling works, which contributed to the Catholic revival: Royalism, as well as Catholicism, shaped his life. His best-selling pamphlet attacking Napoleon I, De Buonaparte et des Bourbons , contributed to the restoration of the Bourbons in Thereafter, he was one of the leading protagonists in the attempt to establish a constitutional monarchy in France — under the brothers of Louis XVI, Louis XVIII —24 and Charles X —24 — as a political journalist; a peer of France; ambassador to Berlin and London ; Minister of Foreign Affairs —4 ; and ambassador again, to Rome —9.
Chateaubriand was liberal as well as royalist. I acknowledge that misfortune has every kind of power, except that of releasing me from my oaths of loyalty. Memoirs From Beyond the Tomb is part of the flood of memoirs — over 1, in all — in which, after the event, Frenchmen and -women tried to make sense of the Revolution and the Empire. It is distinguished from the others by the originality of its construction and the seduction of its style. Chateaubriand includes physical details of the events and people he witnessed, such as the smile on the face of Marie Antoinette, the sheets used by his wife as white royalist flags in , or the appearance and manners of Louis XVIII.
In addition, more than other autobiographers, he supports his own narrative with excerpts from others. Thus readers enjoy a constant change of perspective, and narrator, which enlivens and authenticates the memoirs. He saw that the Empire led to exile for the Bonapartes and diminution for France. Memoirs From Beyond the Tomb is distinguished by its royalism. Chateaubriand was royalist by birth, by conviction and by revulsion.
He never varied in his feelings of disgust and fear — which were more widely shared than is generally realized. He claims that, after the restoration of order by Bonaparte in , the people of Paris shunned those who had participated in massacres. He could have said of French revolutionaries what Ivan Bunin would say of Russian ones a hundred years later: His political creed was: Helping to give him a critical distance from his own epoch, royalism defined his life. After he visited the exiled Bourbons in Prague, London and Venice, wrote pamphlets in their favour, and received financial help from them.
His royalism did not, however, blind him to their faults. Yet he also half despised the king, who, despite his promise to die in the defence of his constitution, bolted from Paris on 19 March , a few hours before the arrival of Napoleon. The apostate bishop stood surety for the oath.
Chateaubriand proves that, in France, royalists could be at least as liberal and dynamic as revolutionaries. He warned the daughter of Louis XVI of the instability of thrones, and the unreliability of using guards and gendarmes to protect them from ideas. Christianity, in his opinion, was the future of the world. Memoirs From Beyond the Tomb is a case for the defence — of himself and the Bourbons. Eager to present himself as an innocent victim, he does not admit the driving ambition which made him such a successful writer and politician — and a ruthless negotiator with publishers.
As his magnificent correspondence, now being published, makes clear, in his eagerness for office he would write to different female admirers on the same day, often using similar phrases: This pious Catholic does, however, admit: The book is full of embittered asides. Many of his contemporaries loathed him. The French public, while loving his books, smiled at his pretensions to be a great national leader.
As Chateaubriand minimizes his ambition and success, so he does that of his class. It was more ambitious after than before the revolution, since it had family fortunes and properties to restore. It provided France with prime ministers, marshals and geniuses, such as Chateaubriand himself and Lamartine, de Tocqueville, de Vigny, de Maupassant, among many others. The history of French royal exiles in London confirms the exceptional intimacy of the bonds between London and Paris.
French princes repeatedly chose to reside in London, rather than Brussels, Vienna or Rome. London and Paris were the only cities in western Europe which shared proximity, a wealthy and cultivated nobility and commercial class, and status as royal capitals. They were bound to attract each other. Each became the natural model for, alternative to and refuge from, the other. French was the second language of educated England, as of educated Europe. Members of his cabinet had addressed George I in French. London had long been a cultural province of France.
The shuttle between the two capitals, interrupted by the Reformation, had resumed with the arrival in London in of Henrietta Maria and her enormous household and unpopular Catholic chapel in Somerset House. The double horror of two Catholic, proselytising French royal households in London helped turn opinion aginst Charles I. Thirty years later the Comte de Gramont enjoyed London and the court of Charles II so much that he could hardly believe he had left France.
Other Frenchmen, such as the writer Saint-Evremond in , and Voltaire in , also moved to London. By it was increasingly attractive to French people. It was the largest, richest and most modern city in Europe; it provided relative freedom; the journey took only thirty hours. Pleasure and freedom attracted the first French prince to live in London. London was the only city outside France in which a French prince had a residence. Soon he was visiting London as easily as if he was arriving at one of his country estates, sometimes for as little as two weeks: He soon acquired in London the same reputation as in Paris.
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His face was so red that it was said he should have been called the Duke of Burgundy. Nevertheless in the prince commissioned his portrait for Carlton House, from Sir Joshua Reynolds.
After his flagrant support for the revolutions of July and October , the French government sent him on an official mission, as it wanted him out of Paris. He was said to be drunk every night. He was executed in Paris in , devoured by the revolution he had encouraged. Nevertheless some of his possessions continued to move to London. The expansion of the French Republic after alarmed the British government more than the reign of terror after It began to believe in the restoration of the Bourbons as the best guarantee of the peace of Europe, and was rich enough to grant them and other French emigres pensions.
There was a geopolitical motive. The Bourbons were prepared to give up French conquests, including the key strategic area of southern Netherlands and the great port of Antwerp, possession of which by France — as by Germany in — was believed to threaten British security. The foreign secretary Lord Grenville, anti-Bourbon in , by believed: Pitt himself declared in Parliament in January In London he rediscovered friends whom he had known at Versailles before The Whig leaders the Duke and Duchess of Devonshire, for example, held a breakfast in his honour at their villa at Chiswick on 7 July I was very much struck with his manner and deportment.
He neither seeks nor avoids talking on public affairs and even of the misfortunes of his family and country, but when he does, it is with feeling for the past, patience and firmness in the present moment, some hope for the future, without violence or resentment against the present rulers of France. It is impossible to see him and not to feel both interest and admiration for him. The Duke attended him to his carriage and marked his civility to the exiled Prince beyond what he had done to the Prince of Wales.
He attended the small French Catholic chapel in Marylebone at what was then called Little King Street later Carton street, demolished in , one of eight French Catholic chapels established in London. From London he helped organise assassination attempts on Bonaparte by Cadoudal, the Polignac brothers and others, in and Later he received and corresponded with the Foreign Secretary Canning and his successor the Marquess Wellesley.
London remained the capital of French royalist propaganda, as it would be of Gaullist propaganda in He too led a London life, living beside his father in Thayer Street and in Brompton Grove now Ovington Square with a mistress called Amy Brown, buying prints and pictures, drawing pictures of himself in a carriage escorted by liveried footmen. His two illegitimate daughters by Amy Brown were baptised at the French chapel.
Having early removed his fortune from France, he was able to live surrounded by French servants, in the Baroque mansion of Wanstead now demolished in Essex. They had arrived in England in January The Bourbons held the keys to Europe. London, a British pension, and the exaltation of the struggle against the French Republic and Empire, weakened the boundaries of nationality.
Far from being a patriot who refused to fight against his fatherland, as he later claimed, in London Louis-Philippe became half-British, and wholly counter-revolutionary. He constantly proclaimed in letters to Canning his desire to fight for England against France: He failed to obtain formal recognition as king of France, the right to live in or near London, or the chance to meet British ministers.
British governments did not want to compromise the possibility of making peace with Napoleon. There was a five-hour service in the French chapel. The funeral oration printed by R. The service was attended by eleven French bishops and four ambassadors: Until the end of the nineteenth century one factor connecting all French royal exiles was, as this French royal funeral in a British royal chapel confirms, the friendship of the British royal family. Louis XVIII had already begun to moderate his counter-revolutionary policies in ; but the British government pushed him further in this direction.
The entente cordiale between Britain and France began in London. Already in August the British government suggested a Bourbon restoration. At first Liverpool refused. On 17 January, however, due either to royal pressure, or to the course of the campaign in France, Liverpool accompanied the Regent to call on Artois in South Audley Street. On this issue public opinion agreed with the Regent: God bless the Bourbons! No peace with Boney, with the invader! All the British troops and noblemen wore French white cockades. They had been waiting four hours before the king arrived about 4 pm.
White flags flew from every roof.
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Roofs, balconies and windows were filled with spectators. In the hotel ball room, in the presence of French and English nobles, all the foreign ambassadors, and the British cabinet, the Regent offered his congratulations, in French: For the next two days the charm offensive continued. Clearly the king and the Regent were trying to inaugurate an era of peace between the two nations. The Bourbons left London physically, but not mentally. From the moment the king returned to Paris, British visitors could count on a warm welcome at court.
Anglophilia became a factor in French politics. Even after the restoration of their dynasty in Paris, however, London continued to attract some French princes. Since he had recovered his fortune in France, it was grander than Highshot House, with a garden on the Thames. It was said that an English accent was enough to ensure a welcome at court. He continued to consult the British ambassador on policy. His refusal to go to war against Britain in lost him popularity in France and may have contributed to his overthrow in Some Bonapartes, like their enemies the Bourbons, also became Londoners and Anglophiles in this period.
After his uncles and father lived as exiles in Florence or Rome, far from the public gaze. In London, a convenient observation post for France, and a symbol of modernity, Louis Napoleon lived as a dynastic pretender. He felt safer there than in his previous residence, Switzerland, which had expelled him at the request of the French government in He admired the moral and material conquests of England and planned to unite France and England through their interests.
At the same time he was planning a Bonaparte restoration. It was with rifles and uniforms bought in London that he sailed in to launch a doomed coup at Boulogne. Thus London was a spring-board for Bonapartist plots in , as it had been for royalist plots in Renting a house in Belgrave Square, he then toured the factories of the Midlands as well as a large number of sympathetic country-houses. It was from London that he left for Paris on 24 September , partly financed by Miss Howard, a beautiful English courtesan with whom he had been living in Berkeley Street. He took with him plans for modernising Paris, in part inspired by his years in London.
After the proclamation of the Empire in , his Anglophilia helped create the Crimean alliance which united Britain and France in war against Russia in When they went to the opera, Queen Victoria wrote in her journal: In March he returned to England in very different circumstances, after six months as a prisoner following defeat in the Franco-Prussian war. He insisted on living in England, rather than Switzerland or Italy, because of its freedom.
She visited Chislehurst several times: There were other English and French visitors after Sunday mass. In there was a New Year reception. From Chislehurst the Emperor directed the Bonapartist party and press in France until his death in January Chislehurst briefly resembled a suburb of Paris. Anglophilia, however, helped to kill him. His funeral at Chislehurst on 12 July was the last ceremony of the Second Empire.
Many British came, because of his popularity and his tragic death fighting in the British army. Queen Victoria herself came — an honour she extended to few of her own subjects — as did senior army officers, cadets of the Royal Artillery, the Prince of Wales and the Crown Prince of Sweden. Bonapartism as a political force was finished. Two monuments to the last Napoleons survive in England. Until her own funeral there in , in the presence of George V and Queen Mary, and the King and Queen of Spain, she made Farnborough Abbey a living museum of the First and Second Empires, filled with Napoleonic portraits, sculpture and memorabilia.
Her household was French, but her servants around 30 in all mainly English. Naturally Louis-Philippe and his family chose England as their refuge after the revolution of in France. Visits between the two royal families were frequent. Although the king gave up hope of return to France, saying that all respect had died there, he was visited by many French politicians including the Duc de Broglie, Guizot and Salvandy.
There were painful discussions with his sons over the revolution of He died on 26 August. The rest of her family and their households settled nearby in Richmond and Twickenham. All were accompanied by French servants and courtiers. In time the housheolds became less French. One purpose was to assert the grandeur of his dynasty and remind the outside world of its existence. They did not interact with the English as easily as the Bourbons, the Bonapartes, or Louis-Philippe himself. She helped win him support in the London press. On 24 August — the day before the feast of Saint Louis — the Comte and Comtesse de Paris made a grand entry into their new residence: There were flags, music, cheering school-children, games, illuminations and fireworks.
Like that of Marie-Josephine in , it was an act of defiance against the regime in Paris. The Queen was buried in the dress she had worn when fleeing France in Incredibly, they were passing through the corridor connecting Dover station and the Lord Warden Hotel, on 20 March, at exactly the moment that the ex-Emperor Napoleon III arrived there from his prison in Germany. The Empress Eugenie curtsied. The men passed by without a word, merely raising their hats. One exiled French court was going to London; another was leaving it.
Aumale and Nemours, however, may have kept properties in England — not sure if they would have to return. Particularly after the deaths of the Prince Imperial in and of the legitimist claimant the Comte de Chambord in , the chances of the Comte de Paris, whom French monarchists called Philippe VII, increased. He seemed moderate and reliable. The Third Republic appeared unstable and divided. In the elections of the right did well.
Republican authorities were offended. They had not been invited: Le Temps claimed that there were two governments in France, republican and royalist: The Comte and Comtesse de Paris returned to Twickenham, where since they had sold York House, assuming they would not need it again they lived in Sheen House and in Stowe in Buckinghamshire. The London region now contained two rival French courts: As inflexible on faith as his cousin Chambord had been on the flag, Paris refused to let his daughter convert to Protestantism.
It was the last but one of the grandiose French dynastic funerals in England: Since he was the last serious pretender to the French throne, it can be said that, while Bonapartism had been buried at Chislehurst, royalism was buried in Weybridge. He held another at York House in Twickenham in January Increasingly restless, he moved between England, Sicily and Belgium.
Moreover his pro-Boer attitude during the Boer war lost him many English friends. In he sold York House to a Parsee millionaire. In conclusion the exiled French courts in London were important both for Franco-British relations and for French politics. They show that, contrary to traditional narratives of hereditary enmity, Francophilia could be as widespread in England as Francophobia. Anglophilia, for its part, could be as characteristic of France as Anglophobia.
All three dynasties remained Anglophiles in France. They initiated the pro-British foreign policies of the Restoration, the July monarchy and the Second Empire. London and Paris were never closer than in the years between and London was an incubator of French monarchies as well as Franco-British alliances. For almost a century London, as a capital of French royalism, Orleanism or Bonapartism, was as much part of French politics as it is today, as the seventh largest French city, with , French voters. National frontiers were porous. Their years in London helped to modernise French pretenders and to ensure that, in , and they were welcomed back in France.
Indeed, French pretenders in London were often more realistic about French interests and French diplomacy than the government in Paris. Exiles can be more lucid than men in power. All three dynasties failed. However, all three had had more followers than would, at the beginning of his London years, the next French leader to establish his headquarters there — namely General de Gaulle. Love letters to foreign lands , Patrick Leigh Fermor: An Adventure by Artemis Cooper, Penguin, pp.
Charming, cold-eyed cosmopolitan , Journey to the Abyss: Gunboat diplomacy , Blue-Water Empire: The great hall of the main Dutch university, Leiden, was once decorated with a panorama of Constantinople, drawn around by Melchior Lorichs. It was a visible sign of the links between Turkey and the Netherlands, which led to the arrival in Istanbul of the first Dutch ambassador in Then as now tolerance, and desire to earn a living, overcame differences of race, religion and geography.
Four hundred years later, the Turkish-Dutch relationship has been celebrated in both countries in an explosion of exhibitions, publications and concerts. They shared the same enemy, Catholic crusading Spain. Moreover, the Netherlands, as the economic power-house of northern Europe, was a natural trading partner for the Ottoman Empire. From to Cornelis Haga the first Dutch ambassador lived in Istanbul, near the location of the present Dutch consulate on Istiklal Caddesi.
Unlike most European powers, the Netherlands had no desire to acquire Ottoman territory. Therefore its diplomats were trusted by the Ottoman government. More than others except, on occasion, the French , they were used not only as sources of information about Europe — where before the Ottoman government had no diplomats of its own — but also as mediators with other powers. Succeeding his father - who had held the same position from to — count Jacob Colyer served as Dutch ambassador in Istanbul from until his death there in Like most Dutch diplomats, he had many Ottoman friends and thanks to the quantities of wine he served them, and his excellent Turkish and Greek, was said to learn all the secrets of the Sublime Porte.
The next Dutch ambassador Cornelis Calkoen also acted as a mediator between the Holy Roman and the Ottoman Empires, when they made peace in Calkoen assembled a collection of 65 pictures of Istanbul and its people by Jean Baptise Vanmour, who like Jacob Colyer, lived in Istanbul for nearly forty years , described in this issue by Eveline Sint Nicolaas.
No other capital was so important and so colourful: Like the Netherlands Research Institute in Istanbul today, the Dutch embassy also acted as a haven for scholars. Until Dutch merchants and travellers sent back antiquities, coins and medals from the Ottoman Empire, which can still be admired in the Leiden Antiquities Museum. They have the great advantage, for readers of Cornucopia, of writing in English. Commerce, however,, not culture was the basis of the relationship: For a time Dutch merchants, importing fruit and wool and exporting textiles, were more important trading partners than England, Venice or France.
The most enduring family of Dutch merchants in the Ottoman Empire were called Hochepied. Daniel Jean de Hochepied arrived in Izmir from Amsterdam in A marvelous picture from , now in the Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam, shows the audience of his son Daniel Alexander de Hochepied, Dutch consul in Izmir in , with the cadi or judge of Izmir, in front of a panorama of the city.
He was made a Baron by the Holy Roman Emperor as a reward for the number of Christian slaves he bought and released. An edition of Hochepied family letters from Turkey, between and , should be published. Other prominent Dutch merchant families of Izmir, also living there for several centuries, were called Keun, de Jongh, Dutilh, van der Zee and Van Lennep. Born in Amsterdam in van Lennep arrived in Izmir in and became a wealthy ship-owner, banker and merchant. A famous portrait of around by Antoine de Favray, shows David George van Lennep surrounded by his family — called by a French officer Count Mathieu Dumas the happiest he ever met.
On the far left is his father in law Justin Leydstar a Dutch merchant of Ankara. Of the two girls in the foreground, one married the Comte de Chabannes, the other Admiral Waldegrave.
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The last time a Dutch ambassador acted as mediator between the Ottoman Empire and European powers was in when Count van Zuylen represented the interests of Britain, France and Russia in Istanbul while their ambassadors withdrew out of sympathy for the Greek struggle for independence. He was helped by his dragoman Gaspard de Testa, from a famous family of interpreters which had live d in Pera since before the Ottoman conquest. Dutch firms continued to trade in Izmir. Opium from Anatolia, for example, was exported in vast quantities to the Dutch colonies in Indonesia.
Even women and maid servants speculated in it. Since the fire of , fewer Dutch merchants have lived in Izmir. In contrast, since a labour agreement signed by the two governments in , thousands of Turks have gone to work in the Netherlands. There were never more than a few hundred Dutch living in Turkey. Now about half a million Turks are living in the Netherlands.