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The word also is used to describe the status of a person or a population with high levels of sedentary behaviors or a sedentary lifestyle. Most of the public health interest in sedentarism has focused on decreasing recreational sedentarism, especially screen time, but there is increasing interest in ways to alter sedentary work so it can be performed while engaging in light physical activity or even while standing.
Standing desks and treadmill desks are becoming popular. Such efforts are important given the amount of sedentary time entailed in schoolwork. In Australia, for example, 42 percent of nonscreen sedentary time is school related Olds et al. Such efforts to address nonrecreational sedentarism are just emerging, and much research and innovation are needed to move these efforts forward. On the other hand, significant research already exists on decreasing recreational sedentarism, especially among children, to treat or prevent obesity. Today, 46 percent of U. In addition to the nonrecreational sedentarism that occurs while children sit to perform schoolwork, significant recreational sedentarism takes place on the way to school and in school during breaks, recess, lunch, and after-school programs.
Data are not available on the extent to which recreational sedentarism occurs on school grounds and on whether recreational sedentarism in school should be an important public health target as it already is outside of school. One of the lessons of pediatric obesity research is that behavioral approaches designed to increase physical activity are different from those designed to decrease recreational sedentarism and have different effects on behavior and health. Using behavioral economic theory, Epstein and colleagues demonstrated that monitoring children and encouraging them to decrease recreational sedentarism was more successful in treating obesity than either promoting physical activity or targeting both physical activity and sedentarism at the same time.
Furthermore, the children randomized to the intervention targeting only sedentarism increased their enjoyment of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity, while enjoyment of moderate-intensity physical activity decreased among those randomized to physical activity promotion; changes in enjoyment among those in the combined intervention group were between those in the other two groups.
The importance of targeting a decrease in sedentarism was further highlighted when Robinson published the first successful school-based obesity prevention intervention that targeted only sedentarism, with no behavioral intervention focused on physical activity promotion or dietary changes. Since then, several randomized trials have confirmed the causal link between recreational sedentarism and childhood obesity Tremblay et al. Despite this evidence, however, the approach of specifically targeting sedentarism has received only limited attention.
While academic research has focused on using school as a setting in which to teach.
1.1 Background
Such efforts may be particularly important as sedentarism appears to track among individuals from childhood to adulthood Gordon-Larsen et al. Light-intensity physical activity, including playing or even just standing, is more difficult to measure than vigorous-or moderate-intensity physical activity, but its positive health impact is increasingly being recognized see Box in Chapter 2.
The finding of this survey also suggests that promotion of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity may not decrease sedentarism but rather might replace light-intensity physical activity. Therefore, the optimal way to promote an overall increase in physical activity including light-intensity physical activity may be to use behavioral approaches to decrease sedentarism, as has been shown in behavioral research Epstein et al.
One of the challenges to monitoring sedentarism is the fact that children and adolescents frequently multitask. As noted earlier, Rideout and colleagues found that U. This figure represents an overall increase in sedentarism since , when the corresponding figures were 6. Television content still dominated sedentary time, accounting for 4. Computer use for schoolwork not included in these totals averaged 16 minutes, while computer use for recreational purposes totaled 1. On a typical day, 70 percent of youth went online for any purpose, including 57 percent at home, 20 percent at school, and 14 percent elsewhere.
It is unknown whether all online activities at school were related to schoolwork. Usually, these perceived norms are not in line with healthy or academically productive behaviors, and cannot be countered by the best efforts of parents and teachers. In addition to television and desktop computers, laptops, tablets, and cell phones often follow children and adolescents into the school bus, class, recess, and after-school activities unless such access is limited by policy, providing increasing opportunities to be sedentary on school grounds.
In an average of 20 percent of media consumption, more than 2 hours per day, occurred with mobile devices, some of this media use likely occurring on school grounds. This figure probably has increased since then. Rideout and colleagues also note that children whose parents make an effort to limit media use spend less time consuming media, but whether this holds true for limits on recreational sedentarism in the school setting is unknown.
Both recreational and nonrecreational sedentarism in schools need to be monitored separately from physical activity. Specific school policies, based on updated knowledge of media use, need to focus on decreasing recreational sedentarism in school and integrating prevention of recreational sedentarism outside of school into the education curriculum.
Because media use among youth already is significantly higher than recommended, schools should not provide students with increased opportunities for sedentarism, such as television sets in classrooms, the cafeteria, or after-school programs; access to social networks and recreational media on school computers; or the ability to use cell phones anywhere and at any time on school grounds or school transportation.
Research is needed to explore sedentarism and media use in schools more systematically so that evidence-based school policies to decrease these behaviors can be implemented to increase overall, including light-intensity, physical activity. In particular, surveys of media use are needed to document the amount of recreational sedentarism taking place in the school setting, where, in contrast with the home setting, public health policy can potentially be implemented.
School physical activity programs are needed so that schools can ensure they are providing students with 60 minutes or more of vigorous-. Physical activity programs are neither equivalent to nor a substitute for physical education, and both can contribute meaningfully to the development of healthy, active children NASPE and AHA, The former are behavioral programs, whereas the latter are instructional programs.
Box presents the Healthy People objectives for non—physical education physical activity opportunities in school settings. The following sections describe various non—physical education opportunities for physical activity in the school environment. The discussion includes relevant policies, barriers, and enablers. An emerging strategy for increasing daily participation in physical activity in schools is the implementation of structured, classroom-based physical activity breaks. Classroom physical activity includes all activity regardless of intensity performed in the classroom during normal classroom time.
It includes activity during academic classroom instruction as well as breaks from instruction specifically designed for physical activity. It also includes time spent learning special topics e. It excludes physical education and recess even if conducted in the classroom by the usual classroom teacher. It also excludes physical activity breaks during lunchtime. Although some discussions of schooltime activity breaks include such breaks during lunchtime Turner and Chaloupka, , the committee views lunchtime physical activity as more akin to activity during recess and before and after school than to physical activity during normal academic classroom time.
A typical break consists of minutes focused on vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. This strategy has been found to be effective in significantly increasing physical activity levels of school-age children Ernst and Pangrazi, ; Scruggs et al. Bassett and colleagues found that classroom activity breaks provide school-age children with up to 19 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity, and the sustained use of such breaks was shown to decrease body mass index BMI in students over a period of 2 years Donnelly et al.
The effectiveness of classroom physical activity breaks is discussed further in Chapter 7. An example of an effective school-based physical activity program is Take 10! Kibbe and colleagues provide consistent evidence that the Take 10!
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At the same time, it should be emphasized that, while the benefits of small increases in physical activity during the school day need to be recognized, the ultimate goal of policy makers and advocates should be to ensure that all schools have comprehensive physical education programs see Chapter 5. It was found that these curriculum-based activities improved time on task immediately following the breaks, especially in children who were overweight; these students went from being on task 58 percent of the time on typical instruction days to 93 percent of the time after the breaks Grieco et al.
These findings emphasize the effectiveness and feasibility of providing classroom-based structured opportunities for physical activity. Breaks in the classroom provide an additional opportunity for physical activity throughout the school day with minimal planning, no equipment, and a short amount of time required; they can also incorporate learning opportunities for students. It should be noted that the literature tends to focus on the effect of classroom physical activity breaks on elementary school rather than secondary school students. For classroom-based physical activity breaks to become a priority, it will be important to provide evidence that such breaks do not detract from academic achievement.
Chapter 4 provides an extensive review of the evidence showing that physical activity in general has positive effects on academic performance. With respect to classroom-based physical activity, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC reviewed studies examining the association between such activity and academic performance in elementary school—age children.
Eight of nine published studies found positive effects on such outcomes as academic achievement and classroom behavior; only one study found no relationship Ahamed et al. Donnelly and Lambourne provide further support for the link between physical activity and positive cognitive and academic outcomes in elementary school—age children.
In addition, studies in elementary school—age children have found an increase in on-task behavior in the classroom after participation in a physical activity break Jarrett et al. They also found that the 20 percent of students who were off task improved the most in time on task. Finally, a meta-analysis by Erwin and colleagues found that breaks increase the frequency of physical activity behaviors and have positive learning outcomes.
It should be noted that the effect and benefits of classroom-based physical activity breaks in preschool populations have not been thoroughly investigated. Classroom physical activity breaks are a relatively new approach to promoting physical activity during the school day. Consequently, research on policies that support or hinder the use of this approach is sparse. For this approach to become more prevalent, supportive policies will be necessary, an observation supported by the fact that just one in four U.
Research clearly demonstrates the important role of state laws and school district policies in promoting physical activity opportunities in schools. For example, schools are more likely to meet physical education recommendations when state laws and school district policies mandate a specific amount of time for physical education classes Slater et al. Currently, few if any school districts require that physical activity opportunities be provided throughout the school day or within the classroom Chriqui et al.
Therefore, research is needed to identify strategies for implementing classroom-based physical activity breaks and providing teachers with the skills and confidence necessary to engage students in these activities. In addition, questions remain about the optimal duration, timing, and programming e. One factor that influences classroom physical activity breaks is competition for time during the school day, arising from the need for schools to meet the academic requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act see Chapter 5.
As discussed above and in Chapter 4 , however, the literature clearly supports that classroom physical activity breaks are not only beneficial in promoting physical activity in children and youth but also can occur in the classroom without compromising learning and in fact improve academic performance and related classroom behaviors.
In addition, research has shown that using innovative curriculum change, such as Physical Activity Across the Curriculum Donnelly et al. Dwyer and colleagues , for example, document the lack of facilities and equipment for physical activity breaks. From the literature, classroom physical activity breaks appear to be heavily implemented in early childhood and elementary classrooms CDC, Few if any classroom physical activity breaks appear to occur in middle and high school settings. The lack of physical activity breaks for this age group may be due to the increased academic demands of testing, along with difficulty of implementing breaks that target these older students.
However, classroom-based physical activity curricula are emerging at a rapid rate. The Ultimate Wellness Challenge, and approximately 50 others. These resources can be found through the Alliance for a Healthier Generation at www. They provide an excellent starting point for teachers and are flexible enough to be modified to meet the needs of specific classrooms. Space is another concern for classroom teachers, who must consider the safety of students.
Figures and show how the classroom can be arranged to optimize the space for movement and physical activity. One of the most common forms of physical activity break during the school day is recess. Children can accumulate up to 40 percent of their daily physical activity time during recess Ridgers et al. Recess, according to Pellegrini and colleagues , is the time of day set aside for students to take a break from their class work; engage in play with their peers; and take part in independent, unstructured activities. Recess is most common in elementary schools and is rare during the secondary years.
While separate and distinct from physical education, recess is an essential component of the total educational experience for elementary-age chil-. Personal communication from Heather Erwin. Reprinted with permission from Heather Erwin. Personal communication from Hearther Erwin. Rseprinted with permission from Heather Erwin. In addition to providing children the opportunity to engage in physical activity, develop healthy bodies, and develop an enjoyment of movement, it provides them with a forum in which they are able to practice life skills, including conflict resolution, problem solving, communicating with language, cooperation, respect for rules, taking turns, and sharing.
Moreover, it serves as a developmentally appropriate outlet for reducing stress in children National Association for the Education of Young Children, This dedicated period of time further allows children the opportunity to make choices, plan, and expand their creativity National Association for the Education of Young Children, The AAP further asserts that cognitive processing and academic performance depend on regular breaks from concentrated class work. The AAP believes that. Physical education is an academic discipline. The lifelong skills acquired for communication, negotiation, cooperation, sharing, problem solving, and coping are not only foundations for healthy development but also fundamental measures of the school experience.
Since passage of the No Child Left Behind Act in , several studies and reports across the literature have pointed to a decline in recess to make more time for academic subjects. Approximately 40 percent of schools in the United States have either eliminated or reduced recess in order to free up more time for academics RWJF, See Table for a summary of changes in recess time between and ; see also the detailed discussion of time shifting in Chapter 5.
Promoting the Participation of People with Disabilities in Physical Activity and Sport in Ireland
This finding is supported by the results of a survey sponsored by the U. Department of Education and the National Center for Education Statistics Parsad and Lewis, , which collected information from a representative sample of 1, U. Respondents reported the number of days per week of scheduled recess, the number of times per day, and the total minutes per day for each elementary grade in. Poverty rate is based on the proportion of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunches. Parsad and Lewis, The survey found that while most children, regardless of location, continue to get recess on a regular basis, children who attend high-minority, high-poverty, or urban schools are far more likely than other children to get no recess at all see Figure The above patterns for 1st graders persisted through 6th grade: It shows that most public elementary schools percent offer daily recess across elementary grades, while 47 percent offer it days per week: The percentage of public elementary schools offering more than 30 minutes per day of recess ranges from 19 to 27 percent across elementary grades.
The average number of minutes per day of scheduled recess for elementary grades differs by school characteristics. Large schools on average offer fewer average minutes per day of recess than small- and medium-sized schools; the same is true for schools with the highest and lowest poverty concentrations, respectively. Since physical activity, such as recess, has been shown to improve academic achievement, this recess gap may contribute to, not decrease, disparities in academic achievement.
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International organizations Aside from the historical literature on the need for children to play dating back to the s , the most prominent and widespread support for recess is rooted in the International Play Association and its work through the United Nations UN. The child shall have full opportunity for play and recreation which should be directed to the same purposes as education; society and the public authorities shall endeavor to promote the enjoyment of this right.
The declaration asserts that spontaneous play fulfills a basic childhood developmental need. That every child has the right to rest and leisure, to engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to the age of the child and to participate freely in cultural life and the arts. That member governments shall respect and promote the right of the child to participate fully in cultural and artistic life and shall encourage the provision of appropriate and equal opportunities for cultural, artistic, recreational and leisure activity.
The AAP stresses that minimizing or eliminating recess may be counterproductive to academic. For a second study conducted by RWJF , The State of Play , 1, elementary school principals participated in a Gallup survey devoted to the subject of recess. The survey sample was provided by the National Association of Elementary School Principals, and it reflects a balance of urban, suburban, and rural schools and schools of different income levels, as defined by the percentage of students receiving free or reduced-price lunches.
When asked what would improve recess at their schools, they highlighted an increase in the number of staff to monitor recess, better equipment, and playground management training, in that order. Other national organizations and studies further support the need for recess in elementary schools:.
Recess also provides the opportunity for students to develop and improve social skills. During recess, students learn to resolve conflicts, solve problems, negotiate, and work with others without adult intervention. Cognitive abilities may also be enhanced by recess. Studies have found that students who do not participate in recess may have difficulty concentrating on specific tasks in the classroom, are restless and may be easily distracted. In addition, recess serves as a developmentally appropriate strategy for reducing stress.
Contemporary society introduces significant pressure and stress for many students because of academic demands, family issues, and peer pressures. The evidence supporting the cognitive, health, and social benefits of recess could become a thesis on its own merits. Despite these benefits, however, few states have specific policies requiring recess, and those that do have such policies often defer to local school districts to allow individual schools to determine whether students will have a recess period.
Policies requiring increased activity at school each day have the potential to affect large numbers of children and are an effective strategy for promoting regular physical activity. However, external and internal barriers to policy implementation need to be considered Amis et al. Competing time demands, shorter school days, lack of teacher participation, and lack of adequate facilities have all been cited as barriers to providing recess Evenson et al.
Further, weak policies suggesting or recommending changes have shown little or no effect on changing behavior. Ward, ; Slater et al. In addition, the National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education identifies issues of student safety, lack of adult supervision, potential lawsuits for injured students, and potential for children to come into contact with strangers entering school grounds as barriers to recess.
Elementary school principals responding to the above-referenced RWJF Gallup survey also cited liability and safety issues, as well as access to space and weather. Several strategies can be used to promote recess in schools, along with engagement in physical activity among youth participating in these programs.
First, it is necessary to provide a safe environment with ample recreational equipment to encourage physical activity.
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Additionally, regulations should be in place to ensure that schools offer at least 20 minutes of recess per day. It is imperative as well that training be provided to recess supervisors and staff, with a focus on both safety issues and ways to interact with students to better promote physical activity. Recess is not a common occurrence for secondary students; however, they could participate in a civic- or service-oriented program whereby they would oversee and engage in recess for local elementary schools.
Sports programs have long been an integral part of the school setting. Sport is one of the four human activities, along with play, games, and work. According to Woods , pp. Play has no firm rules and can take place anywhere. It must involve physical movement and skill. It is important to note that children in schools can participate in sports as either players or spectators.
Kretchmar suggests that playing sports at a young age tracks to becoming a loyal spectator in later years; however, being a spectator at a young age may not necessarily lead to active participation as a player. Chen and Zhu analyzed intuitive interest in physical activity among 5-year-olds using the nationally representative sample from the U. The results of a logistic regression analysis showed that early exposure to watching a sport may have a negative effect on developing interest in actually playing the sport.
In-school sports programs typically fall into two categories: The type and scope of each of these categories of sports vary by school size Landis et al. In the past 40 years, participation in sports has flourished both within and outside of schools. Although young children are not eligible for formal interscholastic competition until they reach secondary school, children or their parents with athletic aspirations start preparation for competition at a very young age. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC reports that in , 58 percent of high school students played on at least one sports team.
Intramural sports clubs in middle and high schools also involve large numbers of students. Participation in sports inside and outside school has increased in the past 20 years. Table documents the change by decade. The data show that while the ratio for boys has remained steady at about percent, the ratio for girls has increased from 4 percent in to 40 percent in Nationwide, 77 percent of middle schools and 91 percent of high schools offer at least one interscholastic sport Lee et al. Rounded to the nearest 1, Participants total is the sum of participants in school sports; if a student participated in more than one sport, he or she would be counted for each of those sports.
Ratio is number of participants divided by estimated number of males or females enrolled in high school in October of the enrollment year. Enrollment data were adapted from the U. For and , only the total number of students was available, and the proportion of male students was assumed to be 0. Based on data from a nationally representative sample of middle schools, Young and colleagues found that 83 percent of schools offered interscholastic sports, and 69 percent offered intramural sports and clubs.
No reports indicate that interscholastic or intramural sports were offered in elementary schools. Many students who do not play on school teams may participate in sports programs outside of school. CDC data indicate that 58 percent of high school—age youth played on at least one sports team in , which suggests that an estimated 31 million of the 55 million youth in this age group participated in sports outside of school. The committee was unable to find a national estimate of the number of students who participated in school intramural sports or physical activity clubs.
This may be due in part to the fact that all children can participate in intramural activities without having the high skill levels required for interscholastic sports. Students have many choices of interscholastic sports. Lee and colleagues cite 23 popular sports, grouped in Table as team or individual sports. Lee and colleagues believe that most individual sports may be more likely than team sports to become lifelong activities for individual students.
Twenty-one states 41 percent had state requirements regarding sports, most relating to gender equity, concussion management, and local requirements. Although NFSHSA remains the governing body for individual state athletic associations, the governance of district sports opportunities is determined largely by local athletic associations in accordance with individual state association requirements. However, decisions on what sports to offer, the frequency of sport competitions, and other factors are made at the local level. The practice requires students to meet minimum performance qualifications before joining a school-sponsored sports team.
Such policies include maintaining a designated grade point average, meeting daily attendance requirements, and adhering to individual school district code-of-conduct policies. One might speculate that such policies may prohibit interscholastic sports from becoming a viable means of promoting maximum student participation in sports and other physical activity. In summary, trends in participation in sports are encouraging. Compared with physical education, however, it is difficult to expect every child to participate in sports.
Although the available data indicate a nearly 60 percent participation rate, the data do not provide specific information. In addition, studies and national surveys have not provided useful information about those children who do not participate in sports, who may be in the greatest need of physical activity.
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Although the literature documents the benefits of participating in high school sports in such areas as academic achievement, attendance, and self-esteem, opportunities for participation in sports have not escaped the effects of the budget cuts that have plagued education over the past several years Colabianchi et al. In addition, interscholastic sports have been dominated by a competitive sports model Lee et al. Policies encouraging and funding intramural sports, which are usually more inclusive and less competitive, can increase student participation in sports.
School-Based Physical Education and Sports Programs , school district officials assert that budget cuts have impacted predominantly transportation and facilities, both critical to after-school sports programs GAO, Transportation costs, a large part of overall school athletic budgets, are impacted not only by the need to transport students to practice facilities and competition venues and then home but also by increases in fuel prices and maintenance costs. Facilities and equipment are another recognized barrier to participation.
Budget cuts have hindered school districts from building new facilities or upgrading existing ones. Where facility and land limitations prevail, school districts have resorted to developing partnerships and contractual agreements with local community recreation centers or universities to use their facilities for various sports program. A lack of funding for sports equipment has further reduced the number of participating students, as the number of uniforms available per sport has caused the selection process to become more stringent.
Colabianchi and colleagues also conclude. Another challenge to implementing quality sports programs is the availability of quality coaches. Fewer school personnel are coaching in the face of a decline in coaching supplements and increased time commitments. Funding for staffing or staff training is an important aspect of successful sports or after-school physical activity programs. According to the SHPPS data, more than half of schools surveyed paid staff for involvement in intramural sports programs Lee et al. Policies to support supervisory staff can facilitate increased opportunities for physical activity for students.
Constrained budgets also have reduced the number of sports offerings, with the primary sports being retained and the second-tier sports, such as golf and tennis, either being eliminated or requiring that students pay percent of the cost of participation. Indeed, many school districts across the United States have implemented a pay-to-play policy.
According to the SHPPS data, 33 percent of schools require students to pay to participate in interscholastic sports. A study released by the University of Michigan, C. FIGURE Participation in interscholastic sports among boys and girls by availability of sports facilities, Figure shows the study results regarding participation in school sports among youth aged by household income.
The study found further that. Participation was higher at schools of mid-socioeconomic status than at those of low socioeconomic status, and even higher at schools of high socioeconomic status compared with those of mid-socioeconomic status see Figure Interscholastic sports have been criticized for perpetuating racial and gender segregation Lee et al. Further study by Kelly and colleagues and Bocarro and colleagues confirmed the relationship.
To provide the physical activity and psychosocial benefits of engaging in sports at school, education systems need to reevaluate their budgets to ensure that equitable sports opportunities are available for youth in all types of school settings and at all levels of socioeconomic status. The same holds true with respect to ensuring that school-based intramural sports opportunities are available before or after school hours to increase participation in physical activity among all students. More Information and Guidance Could Improve Opportunities in Physical Education and Athletics notes that students with and without disabilities were provided similar opportunities to participate in physical education in schools but identifies several challenges to serving students with disabilities.
Likewise, for sports, opportunities were provided for students to participate, but students with disabilities participated at lower rates than those without disabilities. Yet sports programs for students without disabilities have shown. Department of Education, To ensure that students with disabilities have opportunities to participate in extracurricular athletics equal to those of other students, the GAO report recommends that the U. Active transport or active commuting refers to the use of walking, biking, or other human-powered methods e.
Active transport equates to moderate-intensity physical activity, which, as discussed in earlier chapters, provides crucial health benefits. In light of these benefits, the CDC has launched programs to encourage parents to walk their children to school. Studies have found that active transport provides children with physical activity Tudor-Locke et al.
Bassett and colleagues suggest that active transport to and from school contributes on average 16 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity for youth. These benefits, together with concern about increased traffic congestion and air pollution, have led to growing interest in the use of active transport by youth to get to and from school Kahlmeier et al. In addition, it has been suggested. Five decades ago, children actively commuting to school were a common sight. Nearly 90 percent of children who lived within a 1-mile radius of school either walked or biked to school USDOT, Since the prevalence of youth walking or biking to school has steadily declined McDonald, , paralleling a decline in active commuting among American adults Pucher et al.
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