Instead students were led back to their hereditary nature and essence. With the help of his imagination, the writer became a discoverer of world order and superceded the image of Creation, which until then had existed uniquely in the Bible. Thus Lavater succeeded, upon this footing, in sensing his own possibilities as an individual, as a person. And so he began, even during his studies, to record in writing his first philosophico-religious reflections.
This emerging personality can be clearly made out in those handwritten texts that have survived from that time until today. He sensed his individuality, though still within the collective community of friendship, the Enlightenment and committal to Faith. For Lavater, friendship represented a Werkstatt der Tugend , a "workshop of virtue". The key concept was the search for the divine in Man. Lavater considered the best way to find this, to sense this, was to pray together and to practise "virtue" together.
For Bodmer's students, this concept of virtue was, besides its religious aspect, also transposed into political terms or, to be more precise, into the accusation against Felix Grebel. This affair, which has gone down in the annals of history as "Grebelhandel" is doubtless the best-known quarrel of 18 th century Zurich. In an anonymous letter, Felix Grebel, the son-in-law of Leu, the incumbent Mayor, was required to confess his misdemeanour and to compensate the thereby affected population for the wrong committed against them.
When Grebel did not comply with this request, the affair was made public. After trial, Felix Grebel was sentenced and exiled from the territory of the City and the canton of Zurich. However, his plaintiffs also had to appear before the City Fathers in order to offer their apologies for their unlawful procedure. After the "Grebelhandel", which had certainly stirred up heated discusssion in Zurich, and which Bodmer had termed an "example of patriotism" in which "young men had torn old men out of their sleep" , the families of the three Candidates for Ministerial Office thought it wise to send their sons to Germany on an educational trip until things had calmed down somewhat.
Given their audacious act and the incessant surplus of Ministers in Zurich the educational system was such that good twenty new Ministers were created every year in a city that only numbered 10, inhabitants , there was no guarantee that this would happen. They were accompanied by Johann Georg Sulzer, the Winterthur philosopher and educationalist, who was then teaching in Berlin. Acting as their mentor, he introduced them to the most important scholars of the time as they made their way to Berlin. Their journey then took them from Berlin to Barth, a small town in Swedish Pomerania, where the enlightened reform theologian Johann Joachim Spalding was at work.
Spalding's Die Bestimmung des Menschen , written in , had received much attention in Zurich upon its publication. During this almost ten-month stay in Barth, Lavater read with great intensity works not only by German authors, but also by French and English ones, thus gathering the tools and qualifications for his later theological career. In addition to this, Lavater read and listened to letters, judgements and sermons by Spalding.
The diaries Lavater wrote during this educational trip to Germany show clearly how intensively Lavater considered Spalding, his work and the trends of that time. It was also during these months that Lavater began to formulate his riposte to Carl Friedrich Bahrdt's attacks and to write his Evangelische Harmonie. However, there was no open ministerial office waiting for the two candidates in Zurich, as Lavater would have wished, not even one in the country either.
Thus Lavater continued to live with his parents and intensified his work as a writer. From , Lavater also took an active part in the sessions of the "Helvetic Society" in Schinznach. These were sung well into the 20 th century, first in the musical version by Johannes Schmidlin and then in Egli's. At this time, Lavater continued to write and publish anonymously. Der Erinnerer examined the customs and morals of the Zurich population very closely. It also included new patriotic, religious and philosophical thoughts every week, which did not always please the authorities.
The aim of this weekly periodical was to effect moral improvement of society. In , the periodical was closed down following prevailing governmental pressure. On 3 rd June, Lavater married Anna Schinz , his junior by one year. They had eight children together, only three of whom, however, survived childhood, Heinrich , Anna "Nette", and Anna Louise The 18 th century enjoyed writing and was the century of the letter par excellence. The highly frequent correspondance of people like Albrecht von Haller, Isaac Iselin or, in our case, Johann Caspar Lavater with almost all the religious and intellectual personalities of the Europe of those times shows how eminently important this medium was for the spreading of one's personal body of thought.
As a bearer of information and communication letters were copied and passed on the letter was irreplacable. It could almost be termed the Internet of the 18 th century and, in its semi-public form as part of published literature, it took on a new function. In twenty-five letters to his friend, doctor and learned scholar Johann Georg Zimmermann, Lavater took, in turn, as his central theme Death, the state between Death and Resurrection, Resurrection, Judgement and the Hereafter.
Seitenfunktionen
Originally conceived as a poem with a hidden Christian message, comparable to Klopstock's Messias or Cramer's Die Auferstehung , Lavater first summarized his thoughts in openly published letters to his friend, the scholar Zimmermann, hoping thereby to reach the "Depositairs des gesunden Verstandes, des guten Geschmackes, der wahren Weltweisheit, und der apostolischen Gottesgelehrsamkeit" JCLW, Bibliographie, no. The Aussichten in die Ewigkeit immediately made Lavater's name known throughout German-speaking Europe.
His correspondance grew to almost unmanageable proportions in this and the following years. As his biographer Ulrich Hegner writes, "there were always between letters lying around waiting to be answered. Lavater had forwarded the manuscript to his friend Georg Joachim Zollikofer, who was at work in Leipzig. Zollikofer removed the passages that would have given Lavater away as their author and had the Diary printed with an Introduction.
It was not long however, before the Zurich minister and author of the Aussichten was recognized as the author of this publication, too. This second diary, however, was unable by far to match the spontaneous and open character of the first. Working with Goethe and Herder, Lavater tried to discern and understand the human soul through the face.
In order for physiognomical studies to be conducted at all, the face, and especially the profile, had to be represented as accurately as possible. The cheapest and the most accurate method for Lavater was the silhouette. It is not difficult to understand that this theory of the physiognomy did not raise unanimous enthusiasm. However, Lavater maintained his theory throughout his life. This can be the only explanation for the over 22, sheets that he collected in his Physiognomisches Kabinett, most of them labelled and mounted in a passpartout.
Between and , the following works were written: In , Lavater was offered a Preacher's Chair at the St. Ansgar Church in Bremen. Although he did not accept it, he travelled to the city, where he was given a frenzied welcome by the citizens of Bremen. He was arrested in and deported to Basel.
Genesis and conception
Upon his return to Zurich, he was too badly wounded by a bullet in an incident with a drunken French soldier to be able to recover completely again. Lavater died in Zurich on 2 nd January after nearly two years of suffering. In the last quarter of the 18 th century, Europe is more aware of Johann Caspar Lavater than of any other Zuricher. It compares Uhland with Rfickert, or rather, it weighs the talents of the two.
Its main exponents were Christian Hofmannswaldau and Daniel Lohenstein. Gesammette Werke des Grafen August von Platen. Als Anhang zu den bei Cotta erschienenen itedichten Platem, Strassburg, The anniversary was widely celebrated in Germany in June In he published in Hane a pamphlet entitled Die Hegelingen. Denunciation der ewigen Wahr which fiercely attacked the Young Hegelians. The Civil War of unleashed by the Carlists known as the First Carlist War was in fact a clash between the Catholic feudal and the liberal bourgeois elements in Spain and ended with the defeat of the Carlists.
However, the newspaper continued to appear until On October 31, , the beginning of the Reformation in Germany, Luther posted up on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg his 95 Theses refuting certain dogmas of medieval Catholic faith and containing the fundamentals of Lutheranism. An important place in his subsequent activities was occupied by the translation into German and corresponding interpretation of the New and the Old Testament.
He completed his translation of the Bible in It was published in the first and only issue of the jahrbuch der Literatur, which appeared in Hamburg in Originally it was printed privately under the pen-name of Leonhard Falk. However, when it was published in it was sharply criticised. Below Engels refers to this article. In all probability Engels is referring to his book Charaktere und Situationen. Lieder und Gedichte des Dr. The first issue appeared in The member states originally numbering eighteen established a common customs frontier.
Prussia played the leading role in the Union. It is evident from the report that it was written immediately after the outing. It resumed the status of a free town by the Final Act of the Vienna Congress in They were not finally abolished in Germany until It advocated privileges for persons horn in the United States.
Under its pressure the period of permanent residence in the country for immigrants wishing to acquire U. Self-government was not introduced in Bremen until April , during the German revolution. It was abolished in and power again passed to patrician merchant families. The persecution of the demagogues increased in the s, after the July revolution in France, which had a strong impact on the German states.
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Ein journalistischer Beitrag zu den jahren und , Leipzig, They advocated German unification, but Right-wing nationalistic views were also current among them. The representatives of this school, Gustav Hugo, Friedrich Karl von Savigny and others, sought to justify the privileges of the nobility and feudal institutions by referring to the inviolability of historical traditions.
Several other springs in ancient Greece bore the name of Arethusa. Chronik der gebildeten Welt, Bd. He started from Barmen, to which he had returned in the middle of March after his almost three-year stay in Bremen. But even before the demonstration took place the government was compelled to withdraw the invitation and later resigned. On November 15, , Schelling started his course of lectures at Berlin University.
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Engels attended them as a non-matriculated student. He had come to Berlin from Barmen in the latter half of September and did military training there in an artillery brigade until August Schelling, Philosophie der Offenbarung. Simmtliche Werke, II Abt. I-IV, Stuttgart und Augsburg, The pamphlet was published anonymously it was not until the summer of , in an article against Jung which he signed Friedrich Oswald, that Engels confirmed his authorship; see this volume, p.
By almost all the books had been published except for 7 and In Briefe van und an H. Hegel, appeared as the 19th and last book. According to medieval legend, this was a precious cup possessing miraculous powers.
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The conservative press sharply criticised the author: The Rheinische Zeitung , published with the active co-operation of Young Hegelians, came out in defence of the pamphlet in No. The author, it wrote on May 18, , had imitated the pietist tone very skilfully. Socinianism after the Italian theologian Faustus Socinus — a religious doctrine widespread in Poland in the late 16th and the early 17th century, and later in certain other European countries. They were used in ardent Rome for official fortune-telling when danger threatened the state.
Some of his articles were signed F. After moving to Cologne in October , he became its editor and held the post until March 17, Their demand found expression in a protest by seven professors at G6ttingen University Albrecht, Dahlmann, Gervinus, jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, Ewald and Wilhelm Weber , for which they were dismissed from theirposts. In March , he was dismissed from his post as lecturer in theology on account of his atheistic views and opposition speeches. Presumably Engels wanted to continue it, but this intention did not materialise. The Greater Panathenaea were celebrated with especial magnificence in the third year of each Olympiad and were accompanied by contests of poets and musicians.
In other years the festival was known as the Lesser Panathenaea. It was signed on June 8, , and proclaimed the German Confederation, which originally comprised 34 independent states and 4 free cities. The Federal Act intensified the political disunity of Germany and preserved the absolutist feudal regime in the German states. This review was published in the Evangelische Kirchen-Zeitung Nos. The quotations given by Engels are from No.
In November the weavers of Lyons rose in a revolt which was followed, in June , by an armed uprising of the Paris workers led by the petty-bourgeois republicans.
UZH - Institute of German Studies - Edition Johann Caspar Lavater - Biography and Works
A second revolt of the Lyons workers broke out in April and was supported by armed struggle under republican slogans in Paris, Saint-Etienne, Grenoble, Clermont-Ferrand and other towns. When he moved to Berlin in September and made contact with the Young Hegelians he became increasingly convinced that political half-heartedness and hostility to philosophical radicalism of the Young Germany movement made it incapable of becoming the exponent of progressive ideas and the champion of consistent struggle against outdated institutions.
Engels uses the old title. This phrase is commonly thought to have been coined by Talleyrand in reference to the Bourbons. Its origin, however, goes back to Admiral de Panat who, in , said about the Royalists: The reception was used as a pretext for suppressing the journal in December of that year.
In word the instruction disapproved of the restrictions imposed on literary activity, but in fact it preserved and even tightened government control over the press under the cover of phrases about liberal and moderate censorship. The Chamber did not resume its work until after new elections held in January The most important discrepancies between the manuscript and the newspaper version are given in the footnotes. This pamphlet resulted in legal proceedings against its author. It was only the Senate of Appeal of the Supreme Court that unconditionally acquitted Jacoby in its ruling of January 20, Engels is quoting both pamphlets by Jacoby.
The poem was widely commented on in the German and Swiss press. Its publication was announced in the radical Zurich paper Schweizischer Republikaner on December 9, No. Excerpts from it were reprinted in several Leipzig periodicals, among them Friekugeln No.