D due to internal conflicts. The first state to emerge after the Huns was of the Sumbe, a Mongolian tribe who probably came from the eastern Gobi. The fate of the Nirun State was rather different. During the 4th Century A. D, thousands of Turkic people had migrated into the region, crossing theAltai Mountains, and originally employed by the Nirun as blacksmiths and iron forgers. The Turkic people rebelled against the Nirun and won control in A. The Turkic people were not only skilled at animal husbandry and metalworking, but also in growing wheat.
It was the Kidan tribe, who took control of all Mongolia in A. Many cities and communities were erected by the Uigurs and Kidans in the th Century A. D when several tribes invaded the region at the same time. Control of the region was now fragmented and confused. From this chaos and confusion arose the united Mongol Empire of Chingis Khan. His father began the process and the son completed it. Jambyn Batmonh becomes chairman of Council of Ministers; Tsedenbal becomes chairman of the Presidium of the People's Great Hural and continues as party first secretary.
Soviet Union announces intention to withdraw one of five Soviet divisions stationed in Mongolia.
The Geography of Mongolia
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Section , the material on this site is distributed without profit. If you wish to use copyrighted material from this site for purposes of your own that go beyond 'fair use', you must obtain permission from the copyright owner. If you are the copyright owner and would like this content removed from factsanddetails. Geographical Influence on the the Mongols The Mongol character has been greatly influenced by the extremes of Mongolia's geography, comprising huge rolling plateaus, rugged mountain ranges, and areas susceptible to earthquakes.
Mongol Influence on the World Mongolia and the Mongol people have periodically been at the center of international events. Brief History of Mongolia Date of Independence: Bowman, , Columbia University Press] In the Stone Age, during occasional subtropical periods that lasted for around 10, years or less, hyenas and lions roamed parts of Central Asia. Iron weapons in use; Xiongnu invasion of China repulsed. Nomads expand west; pressure on China continues.
Renewed attacks on China. Xianbei conquer northern China. Tangut Western Xia Dynasty, established in northwestern China. Jurchen establish Jin Dynasty in Manchuria, northern China. Jurchen defeat Mongols in Pamirs. Temujin unites Mongols, assumes title of Chinggis Khan. Mongols conquer south to Beijing, west to Lake Balkash. Southwest Asia conquered; invasion of Europe and China. Capital rebuilt at Karakorum. Expedition into Europe that was halted at Vienna with death: Suzerainty over Russia established by Golden Horde: Conquest of Song China. Mongols defeated by Egyptian Mamluks. Khubilai becomes great khan.
Unsuccessful attempts at invasion of Japan. Yuan Dynasty established in China. Yuan Dynasty destroyed; Mongols driven back into Mongolia. Chinese troops destroy Karakorum. Timur defeats Golden Horde. Mongolia After the Mongol Period Civil war ends Mongol unity. Renewed Mongol invasions of China. Dayan Khan reunites most of Mongolia. Muscovites end Mongol control of Russia; last of Golden Horde defeated. Mongols end year war with China. Buddhism becomes state religion. Russians defeat Buryat Mongols, gain control of Lake Baykal: Mongols raid Siberia and Russia.
Sino-Russian Treaty of Kyakhta redefines traditional Mongolian borders. Dzungar Mongols defeated; Mongol independence ended.
Chinese divide Mongolia into northern, Outer Mongolia,: Last reigning descendant of Chinggis in the Crimea deposed by Russians. Mongolia in the 20th Century December 1, Outer Mongolia proclaims independence from China. Mongolia establishes autonomous theocratic government. Russia affirms Mongolia's separation from China. Sino-Russian agreement acknowledges Chinese suzerainty over: Treaty of Kyakhta formalizes Mongolian autonomy. Chinese troops occupy Outer Mongolia. Russian White Guards invade Mongolia.
Mongolian People's Provisional Government formed. Mongolian-Soviet army drives out White Guards. The descendants of the Yuezhi and their Chinese rulers, however, formed a common front against the Xiongnu and repelled them. During the next century, as Chinese strength waned, border warfare between the Chinese and the Xiongnu was almost incessant. Gradually the nomads forced their way back into Gansu and the northern part of what is now China's Xinjiang. In about the middle of the 1st century AD, a revitalized Eastern Han dynasty AD slowly recovered these territories, driving the Xiongnu back into the Altai Mountains and the steppes north of the Gobi.
During the late 1st century AD, having reestablished the administrative control over southern China and northern Vietnam that had been lost briefly at beginning of this same century, the Eastern Han made a concerted effort to reassert dominance over Inner Asia. When my imperial predecessor erected the Great Wall, all the bowmen nations on the north were subject to the Shan Yu; while the residents inside the wall, who wore the cap and sash, were all under our government: Should I, in concert with the Shan Yu, follow this course, complying with the will of heaven, then compassion for the people will be transmitted from age to age, and extended to unending generations, while the universe will be moved with admiration, and the influence will be felt by neighbouring kingdoms inimical to the Chinese or the Hsiung-nu As the Hsiung-nu live in the northern regions, where the cold piercing atmosphere comes at an early period, I have ordered the proper authorities to transmit yearly to the Shan Yu, a certain amount of grain, gold, silks of the finer and coarser kinds, and other objects.
Now peace prevails all over the world; the myriads of the population are living in harmony, and I and the Shan Yu alone are the parents of the people After the conclusion of the treaty of peace throughout the world, take notice, the Han will not be the first to transgress. The identity of the ethnic core of Xiongnu has been a subject of varied hypotheses and some scholars, including A. There are many cultural similarities between the Xiongnu and Mongols such as yurt on cart , composite bow , board game , horn bow and long song.
In 48 AD, the Xiongnu empire was weakened as it was divided into the southern and northern Xiongnu. The northern Xiongnu migrated to the west.
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Recent excavations of Xiongnu graves at the site Gol Mod in the Khairkhan of Arkhangai province, discovered bronze decorations with images of a creature resembling the unicorn and images of deities resembling the Greco-Roman deities. These discoveries lead to a hypothesis that the Xiongnu had relations with the Greco-Roman world years ago. Although the Xiongnu finally had been split into two parts in AD 48, the Xianbei or Hsien-pei in Wade—Giles had moved apparently from the east into the region vacated by the Xiongnu.
The language of the Donghu is believed to be proto-Mongolic to modern scholars. The Donghu were among the first peoples conquered by the Xiongnu. Once the Xiongnu state weakened, however, the Donghu rebelled. By the 1st century AD, two major subdivisions of the Donghu had developed: The Xianbei gained strength beginning from the 1st century AD and were consolidated into a state under Tanshihuai in He expelled the Xiongnu from Jungaria , and pushed the Dingling to the north of the Sayans , thus securing domination of the Mongolic elements in what is now Khalkha and Chaharia.
There are various hypotheses about the language and ethnic links of the Xianbei and most widely accepted version suggests that the Xianbei were a Mongolic ethnic group and their branches are the ancestors of many Mongolic peoples such as the Rouran, Khitan and Menggu Xibei, who are suggested to be the proto-Mongols. The Xianbei used woodcut tallies called Kemu as a form of non-verbal communication. Besides extensive livestock husbandry, the Xianbei were also engaged on a limited scale in farming and handicraft.
The Xianbei fractured in the 3rd century. The Xianbei established an empire, which, although short-lived, gave rise to numerous tribal states along the Chinese frontier. The Wuhuan also were prominent in the 2nd century, but they disappeared thereafter; possibly they were absorbed in the Xianbei western expansion. The Xianbei and the Wuhuan used mounted archers in warfare, and they had only temporary war leaders instead of hereditary chiefs. Agriculture, rather than full-scale nomadism, was the basis of their economy. In the 6th century, the Wuhuan were driven out of Inner Asia into the Russian [ clarification needed ] steppe.
Chinese control of parts of Inner Asia did not last beyond the opening years of the 2nd century AD, and, as the Eastern Han dynasty ended early in the 3rd century AD, suzerainty was limited primarily to the Gansu corridor. The Xianbei were able to make forays into a China beset with internal unrest and political disintegration.
Chaos prevailed as these groups warred with each other and repulsed the vain efforts of the fragmented Chinese kingdoms south of the Yangtze River to reconquer the region. Tuoba, a faction of the Xianbei, established the Tuoba Wei empire beyond Mongolia proper in northern China in By the end of the 4th century, the region between the Yangtze and the Gobi, including much of modern Xinjiang, was dominated by the Tuoba.
Emerging as the partially sinicized state of Dai between AD and in the Shanxi area, the Tuoba established control over the region as the Northern Wei AD Northern Wei armies drove back the Rouran also referred to as Ruru or Juan-Juan by Chinese chroniclers , a newly arising nomadic Mongol people in the steppes north of the Altai Mountains, and reconstructed the Great Wall. During the 4th century also, the Huns left the steppes north of the Aral Sea to invade Europe.
As the empire grew, however, Tuoba tribal customs were supplanted by those of the Chinese, an evolution not accepted by all Tuoba. Tuoba Wei existed until A branch of the Xianbei, the Rouran also known as Nirun were consolidated under Mugulyu. In the late 5th century, the Rouran established a powerful nomadic empire spreading generally farther north of Northern Wei. It was probably the Rouran who first used the title khan. The Hephthalite Empire was a vassal state to the Rouran for years. The Tuoba waged long wars against the Rouran Khaganate. The Altai Turkics that were subjects of the Rouran revolted in establishing the Turkic Khaganate.
The Rouran Khaganate was finally defeated by the Turkics in Part of the Rouran left the present territory of Mongolia. A number of historians maintain that they established the Avarian Kaganate between the river Danube and the Carpathian Mountains. Other Mongols that migrated east returned in the 8th century. Northern Wei was disintegrating rapidly because of revolts of semi-tribal Tuoba military forces that were opposed to being sinicized, when disaster struck the flourishing Rouran Khaganate.
Therefore, the revolt of the Turkics of is often called the "Blacksmiths' rebellion". Thus, from the outset of their revolt, they had the advantage of controlling what had been one of the major bases of Rouran power. However, the newly established Sui dynasty in China stopped and so constant war between Sui and the Turkic Khaganate began. Finally in Eastern Turk recognised Sui Suzerainty.
A Short History of Mongolia
Turkic Khaganate began to revolt and hasten the border in after Emperor of Sui's failure expedition in Koguryo. The internal struggle between the Turkic nobles lead to their defeat by the Tang dynasty of China in Uyghurs khagan was installed as Anbei protector, who inhabited the region between the Altai Mountains and Khitan's land. An uprising of under the leadership of Kutuluk and Tonyukuk led to restoration of the Turkic Khaganate.
In Tardu's army besieged Chang'an modern Xi'an , then the capital of China. In the early 8th century, an invading army of , soldiers headed by Tang dynasty's Empress Wu Zetian was defeated and chased back by Mojo khagan. Successful campaigns of the Uyghur Khaganate led to a peace with the Tang dynasty of China which paid compensation for the suppression of An in silk and grain for 12 years after Nevertheless, the majority of the Uyghurs remained shamanists. The culture and economy of the Uyghur Kaganate were more advanced than those of its predecessors.
The Uyghurs used a month calendar and calculated the dates of solar and lunar eclipses. The Uyghurs developed their own writing system based on the Sogdian script. The Tang dynasty surreptitiously encouraged the Yenisei Kirghiz and the Karluks to attack the Uyghurs and the Uyghur Khaganate fell under an invasion of the Yenisei Kirghiz in According to historians, Kirghiz were not interested in assimilating newly acquired lands. The Kirghiz state was centered on Khakassia. The Khitans were an ethnic group whose language was related to the Mongolic languages. Its ruler Ambagyan founded the Khitan Liao dynasty in The Liao dynasty covered a significant portion of what is now Mongolia including the basins of the three rivers Kherlen , Tuul and Orkhon.
The Khitans occupied the areas vacated by the Turkic Uyghurs bringing them under their control. The Liao dynasty soon grew strong and occupied parts of Northern China, including the modern-day Beijing. By the middle of the 10th century, Khitan chieftains had established themselves as emperors of northern China; their rule was known as the Liao dynasty. The Khitan built cities and exerted dominion over their agricultural subjects as a means of consolidating their empire. The territory of the empire consisted of two parts: The two parts of the empire actively traded with each other. Lubugu, a grandson of Ambagyan, and a scholar named Tulyubu developed a Grand Alphabet based on the Chinese hieroglyphics in A printing technology developed in the Liao territory.
The Khitan language was widely studied abroad. A Tungusic people , the Jurchen , ancestors of the Manchu , formed an alliance with the Song dynasty and reduced the Liao dynasty to vassal status in a seven-year war — The Jurchen leader proclaimed himself the founder of a new era, the Jin dynasty — Scarcely pausing in their conquests, the Jurchen subdued neighboring Goryeo Korea in [citation needed] and invaded the territory of their former allies, the Song, to precipitate a series of wars with China that continued through the remainder of the century.
The Liao dynasty fell in and some Khitans fled west after their defeat by the Jurchens and founded the Qara Khitai — in present-day Xinjiang and eastern Kazakhstan with capital in Balasagun , near modern Tokmok , Kyrgyzstan. In addition, the Western Liao also controlled some highly autonomous vassalized states, such as Khwarezm , the Eastern and the Western Kara-Khanids , etc. A confederation of tribes under the name Mongol was known from the 8th century.
Some Shiwei tribes, though little is known, have been considered the ancestors of the Mongols according to ancient Chinese records. Term "Shiwei" was an umbrella term of the Mongolic and Tungusic peoples in the 6th to 12th centuries. They may have been divided into five to twenty tribes. They were said to be dressed in fish skins.
They may have been nomadic, staying in the marshy lowlands in the winter and the mountains during the summer. The burial was by exposure in trees. Their language is described as being similar to Manchu-Tungusic languages and Khitan. The Turkic Khaganate installed tuduns, or governors over the Shiwei and collected tribute. Other Shiwei may have stayed and become the Evenks. The Kitans conquered the Shiwei during the late 9th century.
The confederations of core Mongol tribes were transforming into a statehood in the early 12th century and came to be known as the Khamag Mongol confederacy. The people of Mongolia at this time were predominantly spirit worshipers, with shamans providing spiritual and religious guidance to the people and tribal leaders. The Khamag Mongols occupied one of the most fertile areas of the country—the basins of the rivers Onon , Kherlen and Tuul in the Khentii mountains.
Khabul Khan successfully repelled the invasions of Jin dynasty. He was succeeded by Ambaghai Khan from Taichuud tribe. Ambagai was captured by the Tatars while he came to deliver his daughter as a bride to the Tatar confederacy and was given to the Jurchens of Jin dynasty who cruelly executed him, nailing to a "wooden donkey". Ambagai was succeeded by Hotula Khan , son of Khabul Khan. Hotula Khan engaged in 13 battles with the Tatars endeavouring to avenge Ambagai Khan.
Khamag Mongol was unable to elect a khan after Hotula died. However, Khabul's grandson Yesukhei baghatur was a major chief of Khamag Mongol. Yesukhei was poisoned by the Tatars in when his eldest son Temujin was 9 years old. Shortly after Yesukhei died, Targudai of Taichuud moved away with the subjects of Yesukhei, leaving young Temujin, his mother and his younger siblings without support.
Brief History of Mongolia:
Hence, Khamag Mongol remained in political crisis until In the 12th century the Khamag Mongol Khanate , Tatar confederation , Keraite Khanate , Merkit confederation , Naiman Khanate were five major Mongolic tribal confederations and khanates in the Mongolian plateau. The Tatar confederacy first appeared in recorded history in The Tatars became subjects of the Khitan in the 10th century. After the fall of the Khitan empire, the Tatars experienced pressure from the Jin dynasty and were urged to fight against the other Mongol tribes. The Tatars lived on the fertile pastures around the lakes Hulun and Buir and occupied a trade route to China.
The Keraites between the mountain ranges of Khangai and Khentii were centered on the site of today's city Ulaanbaatar in the willow groves of the Tuul river. Markus was khan of the Keraites in the 12th century. Markus was succeeded by Tooril khan. In his feud with his brothers for the throne of the Keraites, he was repeatedly aided by Yesukhei Bagatur of Khamag Mongol. The Mergid confederacy was located in the basin of the river Selenge. The Naiman confederacy was situated between the mountain ranges of Altai and Khangai.
The Ongut tribes lived at the north of Gobi. Other tribes were Olkhunut , Bayud , Khongirad , Oirats and so forth. While most of the Mongolian tribes were Shamanists , Nestorian Christianity was practiced in a number of confederations such as Keraites and Ongut. Temujin — defeated and subjugated the " Three Mergids " in with the support of Tooril Khan of Kereit, the blood brother of his father. Another ally who helped Temujin in this venture was his own blood brother Jamukha of Jadaran clan. The striving of Temujin to free his wife became a reason for the campaign against the Mergids.
After the defeat of the Mergid, the reputation of Temujin rose rapidly and the leading members of the Khamag Mongol aristocracy enthroned him with title Chinggis Khan Genghis Khan , as the ruler of Khamag Mongol. It is speculated to be an ancient form of the word " Tenggis "—ocean, sea. A conflict of the Tatars with the Jin dynasty became a favorable opportunity for Temujin and Tooril Khan to defeat them in alliance with the Jurchens.
By the year , the Taichuud and Jurkhin tribes were defeated and subjugated. Influential aristocrats of many other tribes and confederations were joining Temujin. Wang Khan regained power in his kingdom with the support of Temujin. Temujin finally defeated and subjugated the Tatars in Nilha childish Sengum , son of Wang Khan, envied Temujin as his power was growing and persuaded his father to battle against Temujin. This venture led to a victory of Temujin and conquest of the Kereit Khanlyk.
Wang Khan escaped alone into the southern deserts of the Naiman khanlig, where he was caught by the Naiman patrols, who killed him irritated as he claimed himself as Wang Khan. Tayan khan of Naiman and his son Kuchlug initiated a campaign against Temujin in They allied with Jamukha, who competed with Temujin for the power over the Mongolic tribes. The Naiman troops outnumbered the Temujin's troops.
At night at the eve of the battle, Temujin ordered each of his warrior to light ten bonfires, thus deceiving and demoralising Tayan khan, who was a weak warlord. Temujin won the battle. Tayan khan was captured but died of his wound, Kuchlug retreated to the river Irtysh where he was overtaken by Temujin and defeated. As the Khanlyk of Naiman was conquered, Khasar , brother of Temujin, found a dignitary named Tata Tunga , who spread the Uigur alphabet among the Mongols.
A Brief History of Mongolia
This alphabet became the basis of the Classical Mongol script. By , all the tribes and confederations of Mongolian steppe had come under the leadership of Temujin. The success of Temujin in consolidation of the Mongols was due to his flexibility, his cherishing of his friends and his elaborated tactics. The Mongol Empire and the states that emerged from it played a major role in the history of the 13th and 14th centuries.
Genghis Khan and his immediate successors conquered nearly all of Asia and European Russia and sent armies as far as central Europe and Southeast Asia. Genghis Khan abolished the organization of the former tribes and confederations and reformed the country into 95 mingats. In this system, a group of households large enough to mobilize ten warriors was organized into an arbatu , 10 arbatus were organized into a zagutu warriors , 10 zagutus constituted a mingat 1, warriors and 10 mingats constituted a tumetu or tumen 10, warriors.
This decimal system was a long-tested system that had been inherited from the period of the Xiongnu. With an assumption that each household consisted of four persons and every adult male was a warrior, it can be estimated that the entire population of Mongolia was at least , people and the nation possessed 95, cavalrymen.
The newly unified Great Mongol State became an attractive force for many neighbouring peoples and kingdoms. Beginning from , the Uighur state, Taiga people of the river Yenisey and the Karluk kingdom joined Mongolia. The urgent task of Genghis Khan was strengthening the independence of his young nation. For a century, the southeastern neighbour Jin dynasty had been provoking the Mongolic tribes against one another in order to eventually subjugate them.
With a purpose of testing the military strength of his state and preparing for a struggle against the Jin dynasty, Genghis Khan conquered the Tangut empire Xi-Xia , which pledged vassalage. In the year, Mongolia, with over 90, cavalrymen, started a war with the Jin dynasty which had a multi-million population. The "Altan Golden Khaan" Jin Emperor surrendered in and gave Genghis Khan his princess and tribute of gold and silver to his warlords.
Genghis Khan gave out to his warriors the tribute of the Jin Emperor loaded on horses. However, the Jin dynasty continued hostility against Mongolia, hence Genghis Khan ordered his warlord Guo Wang Mukhulai of the Jalair clan to complete the conquest of the Jin dynasty and returned to Mongolia. His power was weak as he, a Buddhist, persecuted the indigenous Muslim population. Genghis Khan intended to develop friendly relations with the Khwarezm Empire, which was on a junction of the trade routes connecting the East and the West and dominated Central Asia , Iran and Afghanistan. Genghis Khan considered himself a supreme ruler of the East and Khwarezm Shah a supreme ruler of the West.
Khwarezm Shah had an opposite view that there should be only one ruler on earth as there is only one sun in the sky. The execution of envoys and tradesmen of Genghis Khan by Khwarezm Shah was an announcement of war. The Mongol troops invaded Khwarezm Empire in Although Khwarezm Shah possessed an army outnumbering the Mongol troops dozen of times, he lacked the courage and initiatives to unite his forces and fight back.
Shah's warlord Temur-Melik led a daring resistance when the Mongol troops besieged city of Khujand. Shah's son Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu courageously battled with the Mongol army in , but was defeated and escaped to the river Ind. Pursuing Khwarezm Shah in , the scout groups of warlords Jebe and Subedei bagathur of Uriankhai clan conquered northern Iran. The Kipchaks allied with the troops of the principalities of Rus gave battle to the 30, cavalrymen of Jebe and Subedei on the river Kalka in May , but were defeated and were chased up to the river Dnieper.
The Tangut kingdom denied its obligation as a vassal state to take part in the western campaign of Genghis Khan. The Tangut kingdom completely surrendered in March The year conquests of Genghis Khan resulted in the formation of the Mongol Empire. The Congress of nobility known as Kurultai enthroned Ogedei , who had been nominated by Genghis Khan. Karakorum had been a military garrison of Genghis Khan since The existence of 12 Buddhist temples , 2 Muslim mosques and 1 Christian church in city Karakorum indicates the tolerance of the Mongols to all religions.
The construction of the city was supervised by Otchigin , the youngest brother of Genghis Khan. The system connected the various regions of the whole Empire. Ogedei Khan settled down the rebellions in the countries conquered during his father and led an army himself to put down a revolt in Korea. Ogedei Khan completed the conquest of the Jin dynasty in — He sent princes headed by Batu , son of Zuchi , to the west, and they conquered the Bulgar kingdom on the Volga river and 14 principalities of Rus in —, invaded the principalities of Poland, the kingdom of Kingdom of Hungary, Moravia then part of the Holy Roman Empire , and the area of Moldavia in — and approached the Adriatic sea.
After his year reign, Ogedei Khan died in under suspicious circumstances.
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A rivalry for the throne began between the faction of the houses of Zuchi and Tului on one side and the faction of the houses of Chagatai and Ogedei on the other side. Guyug Khan died in